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PRKsk^lbBY "" 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ADAPTED TO THE '***_ h~ ' 

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LEARNEH 




AN APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 

KULKifAND OBSERVATIONS 

FOR ASSI3TING THE MORE ADVANCED STUDENTS 

TO WR^TE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY, 



"They who are learning to compose and arrange their senten- 
ces with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, tc 
*hink with accuracy and order." blaxr, 



BY LINDLEY MURRAY 



2k 



**OM THE STEREOTYPE EDITION, CONTAINING THE AUTJU>R*fi 
LAST IMPROVEMENTS, 



HANOVER : 
fri-ALISHED BY*J. HINDS; 

1819. 

D. Watson, printer. 



"Vf: . , .. 






.«j»»:« J»» , v»%' 






INTRODUCTION. 



WHEN the number and variety of English Grammars 
already published, and the ability with which some of 
them are written, are considered, little can be expected 
from a new compilation,, besides a careful selection of 
the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement 
in the mode of adapiingjt to the understanding, and the 
gradual progress of learners. In these respects something, 
perhaps* may yet be done, for the ease and advantage of 
young persons. 

In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is 
a medium to be observed, between treating the subject in 
so extensive and minute a manner, as to embarrass and 
confuse their minds, by offering too much at once for their 
comprehension ; and, on the other hand, conducting it by 
such short and general precepts and observations, as con- 
vey to them no clear and precise information. A distri- 
bution of the parts* which is either defective or irregular, 
has also a tendency to perplex the young understanding, 
and to retard its knowledge of the principles of literature. 
A distinct general view, or outline, of all the essential 
parts of the study in which they are engaged : a gradual 
and judicious supply of this outline ;. and a due arrange- 
ment of the divisions, according to their natural order and 
connexion, appear to be among the best means of enligh- 
tening the minds of youth, and of facilitating their acqui- 
sition of knowledge. The author of this work, at the 
same time that he has endeavoured to avoid the plan, 
which may be too concise or too extensive, defective in 
its parts or irregular in their disposition, has studied to 
render his subject sufficiently easy, intelligible, and com- 
prehensive. He does not presume to have completely at- 
tained these objects. How far he has succeeded in the 
attempt, and wherein he has failed, mus*t be referred to 
the determination of the judicious and candid reader. 

The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting tfye 
performance ia characters of different sizes, will, he trusts,. 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

be conducive to that gradual and regular procedure, which 
is so favourable to the business of instruction. The more 
important rules, definitions, and observations, and which 
are therefore the most proper to be committed to mem- 
ory, are printed with a larger type ; whilst rules and re- 
marks that are of less consequence, that extend or diver- 
sify the general idea, or that serve as explanations, are 
contained in the smaller letter: these, or the chief off 
them, will be perused by the student to the greatest ad- 
vantage, if postponed till the general system be comple- 
ted. The use of notes and observations, in the common 
%n& detached manner, at the bottom §6* the page^ would 
not, it is imagined, be so likely to attract the perusal of 
youth* or admit of so ample and regular an illustration, as 
a continued and uniform order of the several subjects. In 
adopting this mode, care has been taken to -adjust it so 
that the whole may be perused in a connected progress, 
it the part contained in the larger character read in order 
by itself. Many of the notes and observations are inten- 
ded, not only to explain the subjects, and to illustrate, 
them, by comparative views of the grammar of other Ian-; 
guages, and of the various sentiments of English gramma- 
rians ; but also to invite the ingenious student to inquiry 
and reflection, and to prompt to n>ore enlarged, critical, 
and philosophical research. 

With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be 
improper more particularly to observe, that in selecting 
and forming them, it has been the author's aim to render 
them as exact and comprehensive, and, at the same time, 
as intelligible to young minds, as the nature of the subject, 
and the difficulties attending it, would admit. He pre- 
sumes that they are also calculated to be readily commit- 
ted to memory, and easily retained. For this purpose, 
he has been solicitous to select terms that are smooth and 
voluble : to proportion the members of the sentences to 
one another ;.. to avoid protracted periods ; and to give 
the whole definition or rule, as much harmony of expres- 
sion as he could devise.. 

From the sentiment generally admitted,, that a proper 
selection of faulty composition is more instructive to the 
young graiiimnrian, than any rules and examples of pro- 
priety .that can be given, the Compiler has been, induced. 



INTRODUCTION.- i> 

to pay peculiar attention to this part of the subject ; and 
though the instances of false grammar, under the rules of 
Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped they will not be found 
too many, when their variety and usefulness are consid- 
ered. 

In a work which professes itself to be<a compilation, 
and which from the nature and design of ify must consist 
chiefly of materials selected from the writidgs of others, 
it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the 
Compiler has made of his predecessors' labours ; or of 
omitting to insert their names. From the alterations 
which have been frequently made in the sentiments and 
the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them 
to the particular purposes for which they are introduced ; 
and, in many instances, from the uncertainty to whom 
the passages originally belonged, the insertion of names 
could seldom be made with propriety. But if this could 
have been generally dune, a work of this nature would 
derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience 
©f crowding the pages with a repetition of names and re- 
ferences, it is, however, proper to acknowledge, in gen- 
eral terms, that the authors to whom the grammatical part 
©f this compilation is^ principally indebted for its materi- 
als, are Harris^ Johnson, Lowth.Priestley, Beattte, Sheri- 
dan, Walker, and Coote.' 

The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, 
&c. contained in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, 
extracted from the writings of Blair and Campbell, w iil/it- 
k presumed, form a proper addition to the Grammar. The 
subjects are very nearly related ; and the study of per- 
spicuityand accuracy in writing appears naturally to fol- 
low that of Grammar. A competent acquaintance with 
the principles- of both, will prepare and qualify the stu- 
dents, for prosecuting those additional improvements in 
language, to which they may be property directed. 

On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, 
and the principles of Composition, much might be advan- 
ced, for the encouragement of persons in early life to ap- 
ply themselves to this branch of learning ; but as the li- 
mits of this Introduction will not allow of many observa- 
tions on the subject, a few leading sentiments are all that 
«an be admitted here with propiieij. As words are 



5 INTRODUCTION 

signs of oar ideas,. and the medium by which we perceive 
the sentiments -of others; and communicate our own ; and 
as signs exhibit the things which they are i a tended to 
represent, more or less accurately, according as their real 
or established conformity to those things is more or less 
exact ; it is evident, that in proportion to our knowledge 
of the nature and properties of words, of their relation to 
each other, arid of. their- established connexion with the 
ideas to which they are applied, will be the certainty and 
ease, with which we transfuse our sentiments into the 
minds of one another ; and that, without a competent 
knowledge of this kind, we shall frequently be in hazard 
of misunderstanding others* and of being misunderstood 
ourselves II may indeed be justly asserted, that many 
of the differences in opinion amongst men, with the disr 
putes, contentions, and alienations of heart, which have 
too often proceeded from such differences, have, been oc- 
casioned by a want of proper skill in the connexion and 
meaning of words, and by a tenacious^ misapplication of 
language. 

One of the best supports, which the recommendation of 
: Iiis study can -receive, in small compass* may be derived 
:Vom the following sentiments of an eminent and candid 
v .Titer* on language and composition. u All that regards 
(he study of composition, merits the higher attention up- 
4 on this account, that it is intimately connected with the 
improvement: of our intellectual powers. For I must be 
'allowed to say. that when we are employed, after a pro- 
per manner, in the study of composition, we are cult i- 
"vating the understanding itself. The study of arran- 
ging and expressing our thoughts with propriety, teaches j 
c 'to think, as well as to speak, accurately. 5 '^ 

Before the close of this Introdnctinn, it may notbesu-t 
r>erfiuous to observe, that the author of the following work 
has no interest in it, but that which arises from the hope, 
that it will prove of some advantage to young persons, and 
relieve the labours of those who are employed in their 
education. He wishes to promote, in some degree, the 
eau£« of virtue, . as well m of learning ; and, with this 
vkw. he has been studious, through the whole of the work, 
m:A only to avoid every example and illustration, which 

* Blair, 



INTR€DUCTaC!T; 

might have an improper effect on -the minds of youth ; 
but also to introduce, on many occasions, such as have a 
mora! and religious tendency. Hi3 attention to objects 
of so much importance will, he trusts, meet the approba- 
tion of every well-disposed reader. If they were faith- 
fully regarded in all books of education, they would doubt- 
less contribute very materially to the order and happiness 
of society, by guarding the innocence and cherishing the 
virtue of the rising generation, 

Hold? ale* near York, 1795. r 



A D V E R T TS E M E N T 

TO THE IslNTH EDITION. 

Tire eighth edition of this grammar received consider 
able alterations and additions : but works of tins nature 
* admit of repeated improvements ; and are, perhaps, nev- 
er complete. The author, solicitous to render his book 
more worthy of the encouraging approbation bestowed on 
it by the public, has again revised the work witheare and 
attention. The new edition, lie he pes ^ will be found, 
much improved. The additions, which are very conside- 
rable, are> ohiefly, such as are calculated to expand the 
learners views of the subject ; to obviate objections ; 
and to render the study of grammar both easy and inter- 
esting. This edition contains also a new and enlarged 
system of parsing ; copious lists of nouns arranged accord- 
ing to their gander and number; and many notes and < 
observation^ which serve to extend, . or to explain, par 
iicular rules and posiLions^ 

TJie writer is sensible feat, after- ail his endeavours to • 
elucidate the principles of ihe work, there are few of the 

*The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed '. 
(lirough the book, and intended to illustrate and support a num- 
ber of important grammatical points, will not, to young persons 
of ingenuity, appear to be dry and useless discussions. He is 
persuaded that, by such persons, they will be read who 
And he presumes that these strictures will gratify their curiosity, 
Stimulate application, and give solidity and p^rmaYience to-their 
p-ammatical knowledge. In the Octavo edition of the grammar,, 
he reader will find many additional discussions of this natur 

Hold £ a! s. v.t'i r Yq rk. 1804, 



% INTRODUCTION 

divisions, arrangements, definitions, or rules, against whicfr 
critical ingenuity cannot devise plausible objections. 
The subject is attended with so much intricacy, and ad- 
raits of views so various, that it was not possible to ren- 
der every part of it unexceptionable ; or to accommodate 
the work, in all respects, to the opinions and preposses- 
sions o£every grammarian and teacher. If the author 
has adopted that system which, on the whole, is best suit- 
ed to the nature of the subject, and conformable to the 
sentiments of the most judicious grammarians'; if his rea* 
sonings and illustrations, respecting particular points, aie 
founded on just principles, and the peculiarities of the 
English language; he Iras* perhaps, done all that could^ 
reasonably be expected in a work of this nature ; and her 
may warrantably indulge a hope, that the book will b©^ 
aiiil more extensively approved and circulated* 



CONTENTS- 



PART L- Orthography* 

ehap. 1. Of the letters Page, 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 

alphabet. ..... . 13 

2, General observations on the sounds of the 

letters 2© 

3. The nature of articulation explained. 36 

Chap. 2, Of syllables, and (he rules for arrang- 
ing them 33 

Chap. 3. Of words in general, and the rules for 

spelling .them. . . . .34 

PART II;— Etymology. 
Chap. 1. A general view of the parts , of speech. 38 
Ohap. 2: Qf the articles., . . / .41 

Chap. 3. Of substantives. 

Sect. 1. Of substantives in general. . . 43 

2. Of gender 44 

3. Of number 47 

4. Of case. .... . . 49 

Of adjectives* 
S ict. 1 . Of the nature of adjectives, and the degrees 

of comparison, . . . . .53 

2. Remarks on the subject of comparison. 55 

Chap. 5. Of pronouns. 

Sect. 1. Of the personal pronouns. . . .56 

2. Of the relative pronouns. . . . 58 

3. Of the adjective pronouns, „• . . 60 

Ghap. 6. Of verbs. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of verbs in general. . 65 

2. Of number and person. ... 6E 

3.. Of moods and participles. . . . 69 

4. Remarks on the potential mogd. . ~A 



ft- CONTENTS* 

Page,. 
Sect. 5. Of the tenses. ..... 75 

6. The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs 

to have and lo be. . . . .81 

7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their 

simple form ; with observations on their 
peculiar nature and force. . . 89 

8. The conjugation of regular verbs. . 93 
9- Observations on passive verbs. . . 102 

10. Of irregular verbs. .... 104 

11. Of defective verbs ; and of the different 

ways in which verbs are conjugated. 110 

Chap. 7. Of adverbs. . . . . 112 

Chap. 8. Of prepositions. . . . ,115 

Chap. 9. Of conjunctions. ... . 113 

Chap. 10. Of interjections-. . . . 121 

Chap. 1 1. Of derivation. 

Sect. 1. Of the various ways in which words are 

derived from one another. . . 122 

2. A sketch of the steps, by which the En- 
glish language has --risen to its present 
state of refinement. .. . . 125 



PART III. Syntax. . 128 

Of the syntax of the article. .... 155 
@f the syntax of the noun. 

Of several nouns joined by copulatives. . . 134 

Of nouns connected by disjunctives. . .. . . 136 

Of nouns of multitude. • • . . 137 

Of one noun governing another in the possessive case. 158 

Of the syntax of the pronoun. 

Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents. . 138 

Of the relative being nominative to the verb. . 143 
Of the relative preceded by nominatives of different 

persons* . . . . . . . 144 

0f the syntax of the adjective. . . . 145 

Of the syntax of the verb. 

Of the verb's agreement with the nominative case. 130 

Of verbs active requiring the objective case. . 16$= 

Of one verb governing another in the infinitive mood. 166 

Of verbs related in point of time. . % 167 

Of the syntax of the participle. . . , 17*1 
©f. the rules respecting adverbs. 



CONTENTS. H 

Page. 
OF the position of adverbs. . 1 73 

Of two negatives. . . . . 176 

'Of the syntax of prepositions . . . .177 
Of the syntax of conjunctions. 

Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, 

and cases. . • . . . 181 

Of conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, &c. 182 

Of the syntax of interjections. . . . 142 

Of comparisons by the conjunction than or as. . 192 
Directions respecting the ellipsis. . . .193 

General rule of syntax 197 

Directions for parsing. ..... 200 





PART IV. Prosody. 




Chap. 1. 


Of pronunciation. 


209 


Sect 


. 1. Of accent. . . . . 

2. Of quantity, . ... 

3. Of emphasis. 

4. Of pauses. . . 

5. Of tones 


209 
214 
216 
220 
223 


Chap. 2. 


Of versification. 

Of Punctuation. 


225 


Chap. 1. 
Chap. 2. 
Chap. 3. 
Chap. 4. 
Chap. 5. 


Of the comma. : 
Of the semicolon. . . -; 

Of the colon 

Of the period 

Of the dasb, notes of interrogation, 
exclamation, capitals, &c. 


240 

246 

ib. 

247 

248 



APPENDIX. 

UTILES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR PROMOTING PERSPICUITY ANB 
ACCURACY IN WRITING. 

PART I. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to 

single words and phrases. 
Chap. 1. Of purity. . 255 

Chap, 2. Of propriety. . . . 256 

Chap, 3. Of precision. , . 263 



12 CONTENTS, 

PART II. 

Vf perspicuity and accuracy of expression^ with respect to 

the construction of sentences. 

Chap, 1. Of the clearness of a sentence. • 257 

Chap. 2. Of the unity of a sentence. ■„ 272 

Chap. 3. Of the strength of a sentence. . 276 

Chap. 4. Of figures of speech. . . . 292 

&DDEESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS, . . „ 310 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH Grammar is the art of speaking 
and writing the English language with propri- 
ety. 

*/ 

It is divided into four parts, viz. orthogra- 
phy, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and FROSODY. 

This division may be rendered more intelligible to the 
student, bj observing,in other words, that Grammar treats, 
first, of the form and sound of the letters, the combination 
of letters into syllables, and syllables into words; secondly, 
of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, 
and their derivation ; thirdly* of the union and right order 
of words in the formation of a sentence; and lastly, of the 
Just pronunciation, and poetical construction of sentences, 

PART I. 

©RTHSGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER 1. 
OF THE LETTERS. 



Section 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 
afpkahek 

Orthography teaohes the nature and powers of letters, 
and the just method ©f spelling words. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English language, called the English 
Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters are the representatives of certain articu- 
late sounds the elements of the language. An articulate 
sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the 
organs of speech. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following is a list of the Roman and Italic charac- 
ters. 



Ror 


nan. 


Italic 




Name. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 




A 


a 


A 


a 


au 


B 


b 


B 


b 


bee. 


C 


c 


C 


c 


see. 


D 


d 


B 


d 


dee. 


E 


e 


E 


e 


ee. 


¥ 


f 


F 


f 


# 


O 


g 


G 




jee 


H 


h 


H 


h 


aitch. 


I 


i 


I 


i 


i or eye? 


J 


.) 


J 


J 


3 a y- 


K 


k 


K 


k 


kay. 


L 


1 


L 


I 


el* 


M 


m 


M 


m 


em. 


K" 


n 


W 


n 


en. 


O 











o. 


P 


P 


p 


jP 


pee* 


? 


q 


g 


9 


cue. 


R 


r 


it 


r 


ar. 


S 


s 


s . 


s 


ess. 


T 


t 


T 


t 


tee. 


U 


u 


If 


u 


n or you. 


"V 


V 


V 


V 


vee. 


w 


w 


w 


w 


doable u ? 


X 


X 


X 


X 


elcs. 


Y 


y 


T 


y 


wy. 


Z 


z 


z 


% 


zed. 



A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, in- 
deed of every other;iaaguage, would contain a number 
of letters, precise! j equal to the zuimhe? of simple arti- 
culate sounds belonging to the language. Every simple 
sound would have its distinct character ; and that char- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

acter be the representative of no other sound. But this 
is far from being the state of the English alphabet. It has 
more original sounds than distinct significant letters ; and 
consequently, some of these letters are made to repre- 
sent, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will 
appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the 
united letters th> sh, ng, are elementary, and have no sin- 
gle appropriate characters, in our alphabet : and that the 
letters a and u represent the different sounds heard in 
hat, hate, hall; and in but, bull, mule. 

To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we 
shall set down the characters made use of to represent all 
the elementary articulate sounds of our language, as 
nearly in the manner and order of the present English 
alphabet, as the design of the subject will admit; an^ 
shall annex to each character the syllable or word, which 
contains its proper and distinct sound. And here it will 
be proper to begin with the vowels. 



Letters denoting 


the 




Words containing tfce 


simple sounds. 






simple sound*. 


a 


as hsard in 


fate 


» 


as 


in 


fall 


It 


as 


in 




a 


as 


in 


faT 


e 


as 


in 


me 


e 


as 


in 


met 


i 


as 


in 


pine 




as 


in 


pin 


o 


as 


in 


no 


o 


as 


in 


not 


o 


as 


in 


move 


u 


as 


in 


mule 


u 


as 


in 


tub 


u 


as 


in 


bull 



By this list it appears, that there are in the English 
language fourteen simple vowel sounds : but as i and w, 
when pronounced long, may be considered as diphthongs, 
or diphthongal vowels, our language, strictly speaking, 
contains but twelve simple vowel sounds ; to represent 
which, we have only five distinct characters or letters. 
If a in far, is the same specific sound as a in fat; and xy 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



on of 



in bull, the same as o in move, which is the opinion 
some grammarians ; then there are but ten original vowel 
sounds in the English language. 

The following list denotes the sounds of the conso- 
nants, being in number twenty-two. 

Words containing the 
simple sounds. 
bay, tub 
day, sad 
off, for 
van. love 

e gg> go 
hop, ho 
kill, oak 
lap, all 
my, mum 
no, on 
pin, map 
rap, cry 
so, lass 
zed, buzz 
top, mat 
wo, will 
ye, yes 
ing, sing 
shy, ash 
thin, thick 
then, them 
pleasure 

Several letters marked in the English alphabet as con- 
sonants, are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, 
but complex sounds. C, for instance, is superfluous in 
both its sounds $ the one being expressed by k, and the 
other by s. fir, in the soft pronunciation, is not a simple, 
but a complex sound ; as age is pronounced aulge- J is 
unnecessary, because its sound, and that of the soft g, are 
in our language the same. Q, with its attendant w, is 
either complex, and resolvable into lew, as in quality ; or 

* Some grammarians suppose h to mark only an aspiration, or 
breathing ; but if appears io be a distinct sound, and formed in a 
particular manner, by the organs of speech,— Encyclbpazdia Brit, 



Letters denoting 
simple sounds. 
b 


the 
as 


heard in 


d 


as 


in 


f 


as 


in 


v ■ 


as 


in 


k 


as 

as 

as 


in 
in 
in 


1 


as 


in 


m 


us 


in 


11 


as 


in 


P 


as 


in 


r 


ad 


in 


s- 


as 


in 


% 


as 


in 


t 


as 


in 


w 


as 


in 


1 


as 


in 


tig 

s.h 


as 
as 


in 

iu 


th 
th 
zh 


as 
as 
as 


in 
in 

in 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

unnecessary, because its sound is the same with /r, as in 
opaque. X is compounded of gs, as in example ; or of 
ks y as in expect. ^ 

From the preceding representation, it appears to be a 
point of considerable importance, that every learner of 
the English language should be taught to pronounce per- 
fectly, and with facility, every original simple sound that 
belongs to it. By a timely and judicious care in this re- 
spect, the voice will be prepared tb utter, with ease and 
accuracy, every combination of sounds; and taught to 
avoid that confused and imperfect manner of pronouncing 
words, which accompanies, through life, many persons 
who have not, in this respect, been properly instructed at 
an early period. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Conso- 
nants. 

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can fee 
perfectly uttered by itself : as, a, e 9 o ; which 
are formed without the help of any other sound. 

A Consonant is au articulate sound, which 
cannot be perfectly uttered without the help of 
a vowel : as, #, rf,/, / ; which require vowels 
to express them fully. 

The vowels are, «, e, i, o, u, and sometimes 
w and y. 

W and y are consonants when they begin a 
word or syllable ; but in every other" situation 
they are vowels. 

It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, 
that w and y are consonants when they beo in a syllable 
or word, and vowels when they end one. That they are 
consonants, when used as initials, seems to be evident 
from their not admitting the article an before them as- it 
would be improper to say, an walnut, an yard, fcfe. ; and 
from their following a vowel without any hiatus or diffi- 
culty of utterance; as, frosty winter, rosy youth That 
they are vowels in other situations, appears from their 
regularly taking the sound of other vowels ; as, w has the 
exact sound of u in saw, few, now, &c. ; and y that of 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i in hymn, fly, -crystal, &c. See the letters W and Y, 
pages 28 and 29* 

We present the following y more exact and philoso- 
phical definitions of a vowel and consonant. 

A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, 
and formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a 
certain conformation of the mouth, without any alteration 
in the position, or any motion of the organs of speech, 
from the moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends. 

A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect by 
itself, but which, joined with a vowel, forms a complete 
sound, by a particular motion or contact of the organs of 
speech. 

Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple 
and the compound. But there does not appear to be any 
foundation for the distinction. Simplicity is essential to 
the nature cf a vowel, which excludes every degree of 
mixed or compound sounds. It requires, according to the 
definition, but one conformation of the organs of speech 
to form it, and no motion in the organs, while it is forming. 

Consonants are divided into mates and semi- 
vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without 
the aid of a voweh They are b, p, t, d, fc 9 
and c ^m! g hard. 

The semivowels have an imperfect sound 
of themselves. They are/) l> m? n, r r v, s, %,- 
&, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi- vowels? namely, I, m, n, r, 
are also distinguished hy the name of liquids, 
from their readily uniting with other conso- 
nants?, and flowing as it were into their sounds. 

We have shown aijove, that it is essential to the nature 
of a consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without 

* The letters w ai}d % are of an ambiguous nature ; being con- 
sonants at the beginning of words, and vowels at the end. Emy- 
tlovczdia Britannica. ^ . 

Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, p. 24, 3d edit. 

Pram's English Dictionary, Preface, page 7. 



ORTHOGRAPHY.' - 19 

the aid of a vowel. We may further observe, that even 
the names of the consonants, as they are pronounced iu0 
reciting the alphabet, require the help of vowels to ex- 
press them. In pronouncing the names of the mutes, the 
assistant vowels follow the consonants : as, be. pe, tc, de, 
ka* In pronouncing the names of the semi vowHs, the 
vowels generally precede the consonants : as, ef, el, em, 
en, ar, es, ex. The exceptions are, ce, ge* ve, zed. 

This distinction between the nature and the name of t 
consonant, is of great importance, and should be well 
explained to the pupil. They are frequently confounded 
by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings ^n 
the name, are often applied to explain the nature, of a 
consonant : and, by this means, the student is led into 
error and perplexity, respecting these elements of lan- 
guage. It should be impressed on his mind, that the 
name of every consonant is a complex sound ; but that (he 
consonant itself, is always a simple sound. 

Some writers have described the mutes and semi- 
vowels, with their subdivisions, nearly in the following 
manner. 

The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot 
be protracted. The semi-vowels, such whose sounds can 
be continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vow- 
els, from which they derive their name. 

The" mutes may be sul, divided into pure and impure. 
The pure are those whose sounds cannot be at all pro- 
longed : they are k,p, t. The impure are those whose 
sounds may be continued, though for a very short space : 
they are b, d, g. 

The semi-vowels may be subdivided into vocal and^f- 
piratcd. The vocal are those which are formed ij^he* 
voice ; the aspirated, those formed by the breath. There 
are eleven vocal, and five aspirated. The vocal are /, 
m, n, r, v, w, y, z, th flat, zh, ng ; the aspirated, /, h, s, 
th sharp, sh. 

^he vocal semi-vowels may be subdivided into pure 
and impure. % The pure are those which are formed en- 
tirely by the voice : the impure, such as have a mixture 
of breath with the voice. There are seven pure — 4 m> 
?*j r, w, y, ng ; four impure— v, z, th flat, zh. 



20 X&CLl'SH GkAMAUR. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, 
pronounced by a simple impulse of the voice i 
as ea in beat, ou in sound, 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, 
pronounced in like manner ; as, ecta in beau, 
iew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both 
the vowels are sounded ■; as, ai in voice, on in 
ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the 
vowels sounded : as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 

Each of the diphthongal leliers was, doubtless, origi- 
nally heard in pronouncing the words which contain 
them. Though this is not the case at present, with re- 
spect to many of them, these combinations still retain the 
name of diphthongs ; but, to distinguish them, they are 
marked by the term improper. As the diphthong derives 
its name and nature from its sound, and not from its let- 
ters, and properly denotes a double vowel sound, no union 
of two vowels, where one is silent, can, in strictness, be 
entitled to that appellation ; and the single letters i and 
«, when pronounced long, must, in this view, be consid- 
ered as diphthongs. The triphthongs, having at most 
but two sounds, are merely ocular, and are, therefore, by 
some grammarians, classed with the diphthongs. 

Sect. 2. General observations on the sounds oftlte letters. 

V A 

jfc&as four sounds ; tbe long or slender, the broad, the 
short or open, and the middle. 

The long ; as in name, basin, creation. 

The broad ; as in call, wall, all. 

The short; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 

The middle ; as in far, farm, father. 

The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in 
proper names ; as in Balaam* Canaan, Isaac; but not in 
Baal, Gaal. 

Ac has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in 
Latin words. Some authors retain this form ; as, senigma, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

aequator, &c. ; but others have laid it aside, and write 
enigma, Cesar, Eneas. &c. 

The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of 
a, as in pail, tail, &c. pronounced pate, tale. &c. ; except 
plaid, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 
Au is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, 
caught, &c. Sometimes like the short or open a ; as in 
aunt, flaunt, gauntlet, &c. It has the sound of long o in 
hautboy ; and that of o short in laurel, laudanum, &c. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, scrawl, 
crawl. 

Jy 9 like its near relation ai, is pronounced like the long 
slender sound of a } as in pay, day, delay. 

B 
B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, 
and end of words : as in baker, number, rhubarb, &c. 

In some words it is silent ; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, 
&c. In others, besides being silent, it lengthens the syl- 
lable ; as in climb, comb, tomb. 
C 
C has two different sounds. 

A hard sound like k, before a, o, u, r, I, t J as is cars, 
cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends 
a syllable, as in victim, flaccid. 

A soft sound like s before e, ?, and?/, generally ; as ii*. 
centre, face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes 
the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. 
C is mute in czar, czarina, victuals, &c. 
C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English or! hography, 
never ends a word; and therefore we find in our best dic- 
tionaries, stick, block, puhlick. politick, Arc. But many 
writers of latter years omit thek in words of two or more 
syllables; and this practice is gaining; ground, though it 
is productive of irregularities : such as writing mimic and 
mimickry: traffic and trafficking. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tch ; as in church chin, 
chaif, charter . but in words derived from the Greek, has 
the sound of k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus chyle, 
distich; and in foreign names; as, Ackish, Baruch, E- 
noch, &c. 

Ch y in some words derived from the French, t *kes the 
sound ef sh; as, in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as iu arcfe- 
angel, archives. Archipelago; except in arched, archery, 
archer, and arch-enemy : but before a consonant it always 
sounds like tch ; ais in archbishop, archduke, archpresby- 
ter, &c. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht. 
D 

D keeps one imifoi*m sound, at the beginning, middle, 
and end of words ; as in death, bandage, kindred ; unless 
it may be said to take the sound of t y in stuffed, tripped* 
&c. stuft, tript, &c. 

E 

E has three different sounds. 

A long sound; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 

A short sound ; as in men, bed, clemency. 

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound ; as, open^ 
lucre, participle. 

It has sometimes the sound of middle a ; as in clerk, 
Serjeant; and sometimes that of short a ; as in England, 
yes, pretty. 

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in mo- 
nosyllables that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : 
or in substantives derived from Che Greek ; as, catastro- 
phe, epitome. Penelope. It 'is used <o soften find modify 
the foregoing consonants •; as, force, rage, since, oblige : 
or to lengthen the preceding vowel ; as, can, cane; pin, 
pine; rob, robe. 

The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long; as 
in appear, beaver, creature, &c it has also the sound of 
short e; as in breath, meadow, treasure. And it is 
sometimes pronounced like the long and slender a ; as in 
bear, break, great. 

Eau has the sound of long e ; as in beau, flambeau, 
portmanteau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the 
sound of long w. 

EL in general, sounds the same as long and slender a ; 
as in deign, vein, neighbour, &c. It has the sound of 
lono- e in seize, deceit, receive, either, neither, &c. It is 
sometimes pronounced like short i ; as in foreign, forfeit, 
sovereign, &c. 

Eo is pronounced like e long ; as in people ; and some- 
times like e short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the 
sound of short u ; as in dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. ' 23 

Ett is always sounded like long u or eiv ; as in feud, 
deuce. 

Ew is almost always pronounced like long u ; as in few, 
new. dew, 

Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced 
like a long; as in bey, grey, convey; except in key, ley, 
Where it is sounded like long c. 

When this^diphthong is unaecented, it take the sound 
Of e long; as, alley, valley, barley. 
F 

F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the beginning, 
middle, and end of word3 ; as. fancy, muffin, mischief, 
&c. except in of, in which it has the flat sound of ov ; 
but not in composition; as, whereof, thereof, <fec. We 
should not pronounce, a wive's jointure, a calve's head; 
but a wife's jointure, a calf s head. 
G 

G has two sounds : one hard ; as in gay, go, gun : the 
other soft; as in gem, giant* 

At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, snug, 
frog. It is hard before o, 0, u; I, and r ; as, game, gone, 
gull, glory, grandeur. 

G before e, i, andy, is soft ; as in genius, gesture, gin- 
ger, Egypt; except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and 
some others. 

G is mute before n ; as in gnash, sign, foreign, &c. 

Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives 
4he preceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, 
oppugn, impregn, impugned; pronounced irnpune, im- 
prene, &c. 

fill, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the 
hardly as, ghost, ghastly: in the middle, and some- 
times at the end, it is quite silent ; as in right, high, 
plough, mighty. 

At the end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, 
cough, tough. Sometimes only the g is sounded ; as ia 
burgh, burgher. 

H 

The sound signified by this letter, is, as before observ- 
ed, an articulate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It 
is heard in the words, bar, hors*s Hull. It is seldom mute 
at the beginning of a word. It is always silent after r ; 
asj rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

H final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as, ah * 
hah! oh! fol . '-arali, 'Wessiah. 

From the raininess of the sound of this letter, in many 
words, cciul its toial silence in others, added to the neg- 
ligence of tutors, and the inattention of pupils, it has 
happened, that many persons have become almost inca- 
pable of acquiring I its just and full pronunciation. It is, 
therefore, incumbent pn teachers, to be particularly care- 
ful to inculcate aciear and distinct utterance of this sound, 

I 

I has a long sound ; as in fine : and a short one; as in fin. 

The long sound is always marked by the e final in 
monosyllables; as, thin, thine ; except give, live. Be^ 
fore r if is. often sounded like a nhort u ; as flirt, first 
In some words it has the sound of e long; as in machine, 
bombazine, magazine. 

The diphthong ia i3 frequently sounded like ya ; as in 
christian, filial, poniard - pronounced christian &c It 
has sometimes the sound of short i ; as in carriage, mar- 
riage, parliament 

Ie sounds in generallike e long; as in grief, thief, gre- 
nadier. It has also the sound of long i ; as in die, pie, 
lie: and sometimes that of short i ; as in sieve. 

leu has the sound of long u ; as ia lieu, adieu, purlieu. 

Io, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two 
distinct syllables ; as, priory, violet, violent The ter- 
minations Hon and sion, are sounded exactly like the 
word shun ; except when the t is preceded by $ or x ; 
as in question, digestion, combustion,, mixtion, &c. 

The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly 
in two syllables ; as in bilious, various, abstemious. But 
these vowels often coalesce into one syllable ; as in 
precious, factious, noxious. 
J 

J is pronounced exactly like soft g $ except in hallelu- 
jah, where it is pronounced like y. 
K 

K has the sound of c hard, and is used before c and i, 
yiher* according to English analogy c would be soft; as, 
ke?«t king, skirt It is not sounded before n; as in knife, 
knell, knocker. It is never doubled, except in Habbak* 
ku* ; but c is used before it, to shorten the vowel by a 
double consonant; as, cockle, pickle, sucker. 



•uthoGraphy. 25 

L 

L Jias always ft soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, 
quarrel. It is sometimes mate ; as in half, talk, psalm. 
The custom is to double the I at the end of monosylla- 
bles; as, mill, will, fill ; except where a diphthong pre- 
cedes it ; as, hail, toil, soil. 

Lc, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el i 
in which the e is almost mute ; as, table, shuttle. 
M 

M has always the same sound ; as, murmur, monumen- 
tal; except in comptroller^ hich is pronounced controller. 
N 

A T has two sounds: the one pure; as innian.net, noble; 
the other a ringing sound like ng ; as in thank, banquet &e. 

N is mnte when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by 
m ; a», hymn, solemn, autumn. 

The participial ing must always have its ringing sound; 
as, writing, reading, speaking. Borne writers have sup- 
posed that when ing is preceded by ing; it should he pro- 
nounced in ; as, singing, bringing, should be sounded 
singin, bringin : but as it is a good rule, with respect to 
pronunciation, to adhere to the writ ten- words, unless cus- 
tom has clearly decided otherwise, it does not seem pro- 
per to adopt this innovation. 
O 

O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; 
and a short one ; as in not, got, lot. trot 

It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come, 
attorney. And in some words it is sounded like co; as 
in prove, move; and often like au ; as in nor, for, lord. 

The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced «s the long 
sound of v; m in boat, oat, coa) ; except in broad, abroad, 
groat, where it takes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, &c. 

Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long; as 
in foetus, Ajitcech and sometimes short; as in oecon#- 
mics, oecumenical. In doe, foe, sloe, toe ; throe, hoe, and 
bilboes, it is sounded exactly like Ions 0. 

Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad 
and e long united, as in boy; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, 
point, anoint : which should never be pronounced as if 
written bile, spile, tile. &c. 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound : o 

<5 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

moon, soon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, 
foot, and a few others. In blood and flood it sounds like 
short u. Door and floor should always be pronounced as 
if written dore and flore. 

The diphthong ou has six different sounds. The first 
and proper sound is equivalent to orv in down ; as in bound, 
found, surround. 

The second is that of short u ; as in enough, trouble, 
journey. 

The third is that of oo ; as in soup, youth, tournament. 

The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, mourn, 
poultice. 

The fifth is that of short o ; as in cough, trough. _ 

The sixth is that of awe ; as in ought, brought, thdught. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in brown, 
dowry, shower. It has also the sound of long o ; as in 
snow, grown, bestow. 

The diphthong oy is but another form for oi, and is 
pronounced exactly like it. 
P 

P has always the same sound, except, perhaps, ia cup- 
board, where it sounds like b. It is sometimes mute; as 
in psalm, psalter, Ptolemy : and between m and t; as, 
tempt, empty, presumptuous. 

Ph. is generally pronounced like/; as in philosophy, 
philanthropy, Philip- 
la nephew ant? ^Stephen, it has the sound of tfc Ta* 
apophthegm, phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, loth letters- 
are entirely dropped. 

Q 

Q is always followed by u ; as, quadrant, queen, quire. 
. Qu is sometimes sounded like k ; -as, conquer, liquor, 
risque. 

R 
R has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and% 
smooth one ; as in bard, card, regardu 

Re at the end of mmj words, is pronounced like a weak 
er ; as in, theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 

S 
S has two different sounds. 

A soft and flat sound like s ; as, besom, nasal, dismal. 
A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

It is always sharp at the beginning of words. 
At the end of Words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, 
was, trees, eye3 ; except in the words, this, thus, us, yes, 
rebus, surplus, &c. ; and ia words terminating with ous. 

It sounds like s before ion, if a vowel goes before; as, 
intrusion ; but like a* sharp, if it follows a consonant ; as, 
conversioa. k It also sounds like z before c mute ; as, 
amuse ; and before y final ; as, rosy ; and in the words,, 
bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. ♦ 

S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 
T 

T generally sounds, as in take, tempter. T before u 
when the accent precedes, sounds like teh ; as, nature, vir- 
tue, are pronounced, natchure, virtchue- Ti before a 
vowel has the sound of sh ; as in salvation : except ia 
such words as tierce, tiara, &c. and unless an 5 goes be- 
fore ; as, question ; and excepting also derivatives from 
words e&dir.g in ty ; as, mighty, mightier. 

Th has two sounds* the one soft and flat ; as, thus., 
whether, heathen : the other hard and sharp; as ? thing, 
think, breath. 

Tk y at the beginning of words, is sharp ; as in thank, 
thick, thunder : except iii that, then, .thus, thither, and 
some others. Th,M the end of words, is also sharp ; as, 
death, breath, mouth : except in with, booth, beneath, &c. 

Thy in the middle of words, is sharp ; s*s, panther, or- 
thodox, misanthrope : except worthy, farthing, brethren, 
and a few others. 

Thy between two vowels, is generally flat in words pure- 
ly English ; as, father, heatfien, together, neither, mother. 

Thy between two vowels, in words from the learned 
languages, is generally sharp ; as, apathy, sympathy, A- 
thens, apothecary. 

Th is sometimes pronounced lik« simple t ; as, Thomas, 
thyme, Thames, asthma. 

U 

17 has three sounds, viz. 

A long sound ; as in mule, fube, cubic. 

A short sound ; as in dull, gull> custard. 

An obtuse sound, like 00 ; as in bull, full, bushel. 

The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural 
sound, is in the words busy, business, bury, and burial 5 



2* ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which are pronounced bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrfotl. 

A is now often used before words beginning with u 
long, and an always before those that begin with u short; 
as, a union, a university, a usefol book ; an uproar, an 
usher, an umbrella. 

The diphthong e/a, has sometimes the sound of mi; 
«s in assuage, persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound 
of middle a ; as in guard, guardian, guarantee. 

Ue is often sounded like we; as in quench, querist, con- 
quest. It has also the sound of Jong u ; as in cue, hue, 
ague. In a few words, it is pronounced like e short ; as 
in guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk : as in 
antique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dialogue, &c. 

Vi is frequently pronounced like tvi ; as in languid, an*- 
girish, extinguish. It has sometimes the sound of t long ; 
as in guide, guile, disguise : and sometimes that of i 
short ; as in guilt, guinea, Guildhall. In some words it is 
sounded like long u; as in juice, suit, pursuit : and 
after r, like oo ; as in bruise, fruit, recruit, 

Uo is pronounced like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quon- 
4am. 

Uy has the sound of long e ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; 
pronounced obloquee-, Ac.; except buy, and its derivatives. 
,V 

V has the sound #f flat/; and bears the same relation 
Ap it, as b does to p, d to t, hard g to k, and s to 5. It, 
feas also on© uniform sound ; ag r v&fc.; vanity, love. 
W 

JF, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; asi 
water resembles the sound of ooater ; but that it has a 
stronger and quicker so*nd than 00, and has a formation 
essentially different, will appear to any person who pro- 
nounces, with attention, the words wo, woo, beware ; and 
who reflets ihnt it will not admit the article an before it ; 
wfckh 00 would admit. In some words it is not sounded ; 
as in answer, sword, wholesome : it is always silent be- 
fore r ; as in wrap, wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, wry, 
bewray, &c« # .' 

W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, 
why, hwy ; when, hwen ; what, hwat. 

W is often joined to at the end of a syllable, without 
affecting the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow, 
fcnow, r©w ; fl°w> ** 



ORTHOGRAPHT. 29 

When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in Hie pronun- 
ciation, it ha3 exactly the same sound as u would have 
in the same situation ; as, draw, crew, view, now, saw- 
yer, vowel, outlaw. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. 
• It is sounded like s at theibeginfiing of proper names of 
Greek original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable 
with the accent upon it ; as, exit, exercise, excellence ; 
or when the accent is on the next syllable, if it begina 
with a consonant ; as, excuse, extent, expence. 

It has, generally, a Sat sound like gz, when the accent 
is not on it, and the following syllable begins with a vow- 
el : as, exert, exist, example ; pronounced; egzert, eg- 
zist, egzample. * 

Y 

F, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee; as, 
youth, York, resemble the sound of eeouth, eeork : but 
that this is not its exact sound, will be clearly perceived 
by pronouncing the wards ye, yes, tuw-year, in which 
its just and proper sound is ascertained. It not only re- 
quires a stronger exertion of the organs of speech to pro- 
nounce it, than is required to pronounce ee ; but its for- 
mation is essentially different. It will not admit of an be- 
fore it, as ee will in the following example ; an ed. . The 
opinion that y and w, when they begin a word or sylla- 
ble, take exactly the sound of ee and 00, has induced 
some grammarians to assert, that tkese letters are alw ays 
vowels or diphthongs. When y is a vowel, it has exactly 
the same sound as z would have in the same situation ; 
as rhyme, system, justify, pyramid, party, fancy, hungry. 

Z 
^ Z has the sound of an 5 uttered with a plosec compres- 
sion of the palate by the tongue : it is the flat 5 ; as, 
freeze, frozen, brazen. 

It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the let- 
ters vary, as they are differently associated, and that (lie 
pronunciation of these associations depends upon the po- 
sition of the accent. It may also be observed, that, iu 
order to pronounce accurately, great atieiitioh must be 
paid to the vowels which are not astenta!. There is 
3* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

scarcely any thing which more distinguishes a person of 
a poor education, from a person of a good one, than the 
pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. When vowels 
are under the accent, the best speakers and the lowest of 
the people, with very few exceptions, pronounce them 
in the same manner : but the unaccented vowels in the 
mouths of the former, have a distinct, open, and specific 
sound, while the latter often totally sink them, or change 
them into some other sound. 

Section 3. The nature of articulation explained. 

A concise account of the origin and formation of the 
sounds emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not, 
improperly, be here introduced. It may gratify' the in- 
genious student, and serve to explain more fully the na- 
ture of articulation, and the radical distinction between 
vowels and consonants. 

Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agi- 
tated or modified in its passage through the windpipe and 
iarynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe 
is that tube, which, on touching the forepart of our throat 
externally, we feel hard and uueven. It conveys air in- 
to the lungs for the purpose of breathing and speech. The 
top or upper part of the windpipe is called the larynx, 
eonsisting of foar or five cartilages, that may be expand- 
ed or brought together by the action oi certain mus^ies 
which operate all at the same time. In the middle of the 
larynx there is a small opening, called the glottis, through 
which the breath and voice are conveyed. This opening 
•|e not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and, therefore, 
the breath transmitted through it from the lungs, must 
pass with considerable velocity. The voice thus formed, 
is strengthened and softened by a f everberation from the 
palatf and other hollow places in the inside of the mouth 
and nostrils ; arid as these are better or worse shaped for 
this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or lees 
agreeable. 

If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one 
•and the same human voice is capable of uttering, togeth- 
er with the smallness of the diameter of the glottis ; and 
reiect, that the same diameter must always produce the 



fcftTHOGRAPHY. SI 

same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of 
tone a correspondent change of diameter is necessary ; 
we must be filled with admiration at the mechanism of 
these parts, and the fineness of Ihe fibres that operate in 
producing effects so minute, so various, and in their pro- 
portions so exactly uniform. For it admits of proof, that 
the diameter of the human glottis is capable of more than 
sixty distinct degrees of contraction or enlargement, by 
each of which a different note is produced ; and yet the 
greatest diameter of that aperture, as before observed, 
does not exceed one tenth of an inth. 

Speech is made up of articulate voices ; and what we 
call articulation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, 
or larynx, but by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, 
tongue, lips and nostrils. Articulation begins not, till 
the breath, or voice, has passed through the larynx. 

The simplest articulate voices are those which pro- 
ceed from an open mouth, and are by grammarians called 
vowel sounds. In transmitting these, the aperture of the 
mouth -may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or 
very small ; which is one cause of the variety of vowels ; 
a particular sound being produced by each particular 
aperture. Moreover, in passing through an open mouth, 
the voice may be gettily acted upon, by the lips, or by the 
tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat ; whence 
another source of variety in vowel sounds. 

Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds maj be for- 

k med, agreeably to the plan in pjage 15 ; and the learners, 

I by observing the position of their mouth, lips, tongue, &c. 

when they are uttering the sounds, will perceive 1 hat va- 

5 rious operations of these organs of speecfc, are necesrary 

to the production of the different vow el sounds ; and that 

by minute variations they may all be distinctly pronoue- 

ced. 

When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is 
totally intercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed 
a certain modification of articulate sound, which, as ex- 
pressed ~by a character in writing, is called a consonant. 
Silence is the effect of a total interception ; and-indistinct 
sound, of a strong compression ; and therefore a conso- 
nant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; and its 
influence in varying the tones of language is not clearly 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perceived, unless it be accompanied by an opening of the 
mouth, that is, by a vowel. 

By making the experiment with attention, the student 
wijl perceive that each of the mutes is formed by the- voice 
being intercepted, by the lips, by the tongue and pakte : or 
by the tongue and throat ; and that the scmi-vcwcis are 
formed by the same organs strongly compressing the voice 
in its passage, but not totally intercepting if. 

The elements of language, according to the different 
seats where they are formed, or the several organs of 
speech chiefly concerned in their pronunciation, are divi- 
ded into several classes, tod denominated as follows : 
those are called labials, which are formed by the lips ; 
those dentals, thdt are formed with the teeth ; pa!aials> 
that are formed with the palate ; and nasals, that are 
formed by the nose. 

The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, dis- 
tinct, and accurate knowledge of the Sounds of the first 
principles of language, and a wish to lead young minds to 
a further consideration of a subject so curious and useful, 
have induced the compiler to bestow particular atten- 
tion on the preceding part of tbis work. Some writers 
think that theSe subjects do not properly Constitute any 
part of grammar ; and Consider them as the exclusive 
province of the spelling-book ; but if we reflect, that let- 
ters *and their sounds are the constituent principles of 
that art, which teaches us to speak and write with propri- 
ety, and >that, in general, very little knowledge of their - 
nature is acquired by the spelling-book, we must admit, 
that they properly belong to grammar ; and that a ra- 
tional consideration of these elementary principles of Ian* 
guage is an object that demands the attention of the young 
grammarian. The sentiments of a very judicious and 
eminent writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of gram- 
mar, may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present 
occasion. 

"Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements 
of grammar, because it may seem to them a matter of 
small consequence, to show the distinction between vow- 
els and consonants, and to divide the latter into liquids 
and mutes. But they who penetrate into the innermost ij 
parts of this tpapte of science, will there discover such 



^ ORTHOGRAPHY. 33 

refinement and subtility of matter, as are not only proper 
to sharpen the understandings of young persons, b\i suffi- 
cient to give exercise for the most profound knowledge 
and erudition." 

The elementary sound*, under their smallest combina- 
• tion, produce a syllable ; syllables properly combined, 
produce a word; words duly combined produce a sentence ; 
and sentences properly combined produce an oraiion or 
discourse. Thus it is, says XKrris, in his Hermeb, that 
to principles apparently so trivial as a few plain element- 
ary sounds, we owe that variety of articulate voices,whick 
has been sufficient to explain the sentiments of so inni* 
merable a multitude, as all th« present and past genera* 
tions of men, 

SHAFT** II. 
6F SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING THEWv 

A syllable is a sound, either simple o? 
•dsps^ndcd. pronounced- bj * single impulse 
of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of 
a word : as, a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing wofcIs 
into their syllables, or of expressing a word by 
its proper letters. 

The following are the general rules for the division of 
words into syllables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, mast be 
joined to the latter syllable : as de-light, bri-dal, re-source : 
-except the tatte? x ; as, ex-ist, examine : and except 

likewise words compounded ; as, up-on, uri-even, dis-ease. 

2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not 
be separated ; as, fa ble, sti-Ce. But when they come 
between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a 
word, %y must be divided ; as, ut-most, un-der 3 in-sect, 
er-ror coffin. 

3. When three consonants meet in tl& middle of a 
word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel 
be pronounced long, they are not to be separated ; as, 
de-throne, de-stroy. But when the vowel of the precede 
ing syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonant* 




34 f ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

always belongs to that syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove^ 
dis-train. 

4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper 
to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, sueh of 
them as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest 
to the former syllable: as, ab-stain ; com-plete, em-broil, 
dan-dler, 4fcp- pie', eon-strain, hand-some, parcte-nient. 

5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided 
into separate syllables ; as, cm-el, deriii-al, soci-e-ty. 

6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple 
words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow- 
worm, over-power, never-the-less, 

7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are 
generally separated : as, teach-esr, teuch-etb, teach-ing, 
teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, 
freedom, false-hood. 

The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the 
reasons in support of them, are expressed ai large in the 
author's English Spelling-book* Thirteenth^ any SuVse* 
quent, edition, page 210 — 215, 



€EAP. III. 

. Of words in general, and the hules for spelling them. \ 

Words are articulate sounds, used by com- 
xnon consent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Mono- c 
syllable ; a word of two syllables, a Dissylla- 
ble ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; 
and a word of four or more syllables, a Poly- 
syllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot b* 
reduced to any simpler word in the language ; 
as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be re- 
duced to another word in English of greater 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 35 

simplicity : as, manful, goodness, content- 
ment, Yorkshire.* 

There are many English words which, (hough com- 
pounds in other languages, are to us primitives : thus, 
circumspect, circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, 
complicate, &c. primitive words in English, will be found 
derivatives, when traced in the Latin tongue. 

The orthography of the English language is attended 
with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a conside- 
rable part of this inconvenience may be remedied^ by at- 
tending to the general laws of formation ; and, for this 
end, the learner is presented with a view of such gene- 
ral maxi'ms in spelling primitive and derivative words, as 
have been almost universally received. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with/, Z, or s, preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel,. double the final consonant : as, staff, mill, 
pass, <fec. The only exception* are, of, if, as, is, has, was, 
yes, his, this, us, and thus. 

rule n. 

Monosyllables ending with any consonant but/,/, ora*, 
and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final 
consonant; excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, en, inn, 
bunn, purr, and buzz. 

rule nr. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form 
the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nojns, 
past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by chang- 
ing 3/ into i: as, spy, spies ; I «arry, thou carriest; he 
carrie ih, or carries; carrier, carried; hippy, happier, 
happiest. 

The present participle hi m<f, retail the. v t that i may 
not he doubled ; as, carry, carrying; bury, burj ing, &c: 

But y, preceded by a vowel in such instances as the 
above, is not changed: as, boy, boys : I cloy, he cloys, 
cloyed, <fcc. ; except in lay, pay, and say ; from which 
are formed, laid. paid, and said ; aud their compounds, 
unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 

* A compound word is included under the head of derivative 
words ; as, penknife, teacup, looking-dass ; amy be reduced t» 
etuer words of greater simplicity. 



86 RNGLISI* GRAMMAB. 

HULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon 
assuming an addition?/! syllable beginning with a conso- 
nant, commonly change y into i; as, happy, happily, 
happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is 
very rarely changed in the additional syllable ; as, coy, 
coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood : annoy, annoyer, annoy- 
ance; joj^j oy less, jo jfuh 

RULE V. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on ihe last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vow- 
el, double that consonant, when they take another sylla- 
ble beginning with a vowel : as, wit, witty | thin, tbm- 
nish ; to abet, an abettor; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the 
preceding syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to 
toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; maid, inaiden, &c. 

RULE VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking 
n-ess, less, kj, or fid, after them preserve the letter dou- 
ble ; ?>s, harmtfsstiess, caselrssueis, carelessly, stiffiy, 
(Successful, diitressful, &c. But those words which end 
with, doable ', and tab* ness, l$s&\ ly, or Jul, alter them, 
generally omit one I s as fulness, skiiless, fully, skilful, &c. 

RUL* VII. 

Ness, less, fy,and/i/Z, added to words ending with silent 
A do not cut it off: as, paleness, guileless, closely, peace- 
ful ; except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. 

RtfliE Jill. 

Menty added lo words ending with silent e, generally 
preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement chastisement, 
incitement, &e. The words judgment, abridgment, ac- 
knowledgment, are deviations from the rule. 

Like other terminations, rami changes y into *, when 
preceded by a consonant; as, accompany, accompani- 
ment; me r ry , men im e u c. 

RCJL.E IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending 
with silent % almost always cut it off: as, blame, blama- 
ble; *u re, curable; sense, sensible, &c : but if c org 
soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then pre- 
served in words compounded with able ; a*, change^ 
changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c 



qAthogiuphy. Yl 

When hig or ish is added to words ending with silent 
c, the ^ is almost universally omitted : as, place, placing; 
lodge, lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 

RUT, IS XI. 

Words taken into composition, often drop those letters 
which were superfluous in the simple words: as, hand- 
ful, dttnghil, withal, also, chilblain, (bretel. 

The orthography of a great number of English words 
is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of dis- 
tinction. Thus, honour and honor, inquire and enquire, 
negotiate and negotiate, control and contrettl, expense and 
expend, allege and at ledge, surprise .and surprize, complete 
and compUaL c-vinexion and comedian, abridgment and 
abridgement, and manj r other orth -\ variations, 

are to be met with in the best modern publications. 
Some authority for deciding di!i"erenc.s of this nature 
appears to be necessary : and where can we find one of 
equal pretentions with Dr. Johnson's Di^tionarv ? though 
a few of his decisions do not appear fo be warranted by 
the principles of etymology and aafdogy, the stable foun- 
dations of his improvements. — { As the weight of truth 
and reason (says Nares in his "Eiemenis of Orthoepy") 
is irresistible, Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed 
the external form of our language. Indeed, so conve- 
nient is it to have one acknowledged standard to recur to; 
so much preferable, in matters of this nature, is a trifling 
degree of irregular^, to a continual change, and fruitless 
pursuit of unattainable perfection ; that it is earnestly to 
he hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, 
be tempted to invovate." 

This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographi- 
cal inconsistencies, which ought to be rectify 4 : such a*, 
immovable moveable, chastel >j chasiness, feral tness fertilu, 
siincss slyly, fearlesshffcarlesiicss, Heedlessness medlesly. 
If these, and similar irregularities, were corrected by 
spelling the words analogically, according to the first 
word tn each part of the series, and agreeably to the gene- 
ral rules of spelling, the Dictionary would duubiless, in 
these respects, be improved. 



3S 

PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 



v£ General View of the Parts of Speech 

The second part of grammar is etymology* 
which treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications^and their derivation. 

There are, in English, nine sorts of words, 
or, as they are commonly called, parts of 
speech; namely, the article, the substan- 
tive or NOUN, the adjective, the pronoun, 
the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the 
conjunction, and the interjection. 

1. An article is a word prefixed to substan- 
tives, to point them out, and to show how far 
their signification extends : as, a garden, an 
eagle, ike woman. 

2. A Substantive or noun is the name of any 
thing that exists, or of which we have any no- 
tion : as, London, man, virtue. 

A substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its 
taking an article before it, or by its making sense of it- 
self : as, a book", the sun, an apple ; temperance, industry, 
^hastily. 

3. An Adjective is a word added to a sub- 
stantive, to express its quality : as, "An in- 
dustinous man ; a virtuous woman." 

An a^joclvve may be known by its making sense with 
the ad Uuon of the word thing : as, a good thing ; a bad 
thing : or of any particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, 
a plmsant prospect, a lively boy. 

4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of ft 



ETYMOLOGT. 3$ 

noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the 
same word : as, "The man is happy ; he is 
benevolent ; he is useful." 

5. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, 
to do, or to suffer : as, "I am ; I vide ; 1 am 
ruled." 

A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making 
sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to 
before it : as, I walk, he plays, they write ; or, to rvalk y 
to play, to write, 

6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a 
verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another 
adverb, to express some quality or circum- 
stance respecting it : as, "He reads well ; a 
truly good man ; he writes very correctly." 

An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering 
to the question, How ? how much ? when ? or where ? 
as, in the phrase, "He reads correctly" the answer to the 
question, How does he read ? is, correctly. 

7. Prepositions serve to connect words with 
one another, and to show the relation between 
them : as, "He went from London to York ;" 
"she is above disguise j" "they are supported 
by industry." 

A preposition may be known by its admitting after it 
a personal pronoun, in the objective case ; as, ?vhh. for, 
lo,6zc. will allow the objective case after them ; with 
I him, for her, to them, &c. 

8. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences ; so as, out of 
two or more sentences, to make but one : it 
sometimes connects only wowls : as, "Thou 
and he are happy, because you are good." 
"Two and three are five." 

i 9, Interjections are words thrown in be- 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

twee u the parts of a sentence, to express tlie 
passions or emotions of the speaker : as, "Q 
virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 

The observations which have been made, to aid learn- 
ers in distinguishing the parts of speech from one ano- 
ther, may afford them some small assistance; but it will 
certainly be much more instructive, to distinguish them 
by the definitions, and an accurate knowledge of their na- 
ture. 

In the following passage, all the parts of speech are 
exemplified : 

1 2 7 2 5 12 % 7 2 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man ; 
8 5 5 7 4 7 4 3 2 7 

and was bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for 

13 3 6 3*2 89 6 6 

the greatest and most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often 
5 4 5471 3 7 2 

«!o we pervert it to the worst of purposes t 

In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are arti- 
cles ; power, specech, faculty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, 
are substantives ; peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, 
worst, are adjectives ; him, Ids, we, it, are pronouns ; w, 
was, bestowed, do, pervert, are verbs ; most, how, often, are 
adverbs ; of to, on, by, for, are prepositions ; and, but, 
are conjunctions ; and alas is an interjection. 

The number of the different sorts of words, or of the 
parts of speech, lias been variously reckoned by different 
grammarians. Some have enumerated ten, making the 
narticiple a distinct part ; some eight, excluding the par- 
ticiple: and ranking the adjective under the noun ; 
some four, and others only two, (the noun and the verb,) 
supposing the rest to be contained in the parts of their 
division.* We have followed those authors, who appear 
to have given them the most natural and inteUigible dis- 
tribution. Some remarks on the division made by tne 
learned Home Tooke, are contained in the first section 
of the eleventh chapter of etymology. 

The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy ot be- 
irlfc cdffiltte^il as a i;: rt of artificial language or speech^ 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

being rather a branch of that natural language, which we 
possess in common with the brute creation, and by which 
. we express the sudden emotions and passions that actuate 
our frame. *But, as it is used in written as well as oral 
language, it may, in some measure, he deemed a part of 
speech. It is with us. a virtual sentence, in which the 
noun and verb are concealed under an imperfect or in- 
digested word. — See this Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar. 

CHAPTER II. 

Of the Articles. 

An Article is a word prefixed to substan- 
tives, to point them out, and to show how far 
their signication extends ; as, a garden, an 
eagle, the woman. 

In English, there are but two articles, a and 
the : a becomes an before a vowel,* aud be- 
fore a silent h ; as, an acorn, an hour. But if 
the h be sounded, the a only is to be used ; as ? 
a hand, a heart, a highway. 

The inattention of writers and printers to this neces- 
sary distinction, has occasioned the frequent use of an 
before h> when it is to be pronounced ; and this circum- 
stance, more than any other, h?is probably contributed to 
that indistinct utterance, or total omission, of the sound 
signified by this letter, which very often occurs amongst 
readers and speakers. An horse, an husband, an herald, 
an heathen, and many similar associations, are frequently 
to be found in works of taste and merit. To remedy this 
evil, readers should be taught to omit, in all similar cases, 
the sound of the n, and to give the h its full pronunciation. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is 
used in a vague sense, to point out one single 
thing of the kind, in other respects indetermi 

* A instead of an is now used before words beginning with u 
long. See page 29, letter U. It ifffclso nsed before ont ; aa, 
many a one. 

4» 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

iiate : as, "Give me a book $" "bring me an 
apple. " 

The is called the definite article ;* because it 
ascertains what particular thing or things are 
meant : as, "Give me the book ;" "Bring me 
the apples;" meaning some book, or apples, 
referred to. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, 
is generally taken in its widest sense : as, "A 
candid temper is proper for man ;" that is, for 
all mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will 
be seen in the following examples ; "The son of a king — 
the son of the king — a son of the king." Each of these 
three phrases has an entirely different meaning, through 
the different application of the articles a and the. 

"Thou art a man," is a very general and harmless po- 
sition ; but, "Thou art the man," (as Nathan said to Da- 
vid,) is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse 
into the heart. 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the dif- 
ferent virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, 
metals, herbs, &c. ; as, "prudence is commendable ; 
falsehood is odious ; anger ought to be avoided :" &c It 
is not prefixed to a proper name ; as, "Alexander," (be- 
cause that of itself denotes a determinate individual or 
particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing a 
particular family : as, "He is a Howard, or of the family 
of the Howards ;" or by way cf eminence : as, "Every 
man is not a .Newton;" "He has the courage of an A^ 
ehilles :" or when some noun is understood ; "He sailed 
•lown the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 

When an adjective is used with the noun to which the 
article relates, it is placed between the article and the 
noun ; as, "a good man," "an agreeable woman," "the 
best friend. "' On some occasions, however, the adjective 
precedes a or on ; as, "such a shame," "as great a man 
as Alexander," "too careless an author." 

The indefinite article ean be joined to substantives m 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

the singular number only ; the definite article may be 
joined also to plurals. 

But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this 
rule, in the use of the adjectives few and?na;it/, (the lat- 
ter chiefly with the word great before it,) which, though 
joined with plural substantives, yet admit of the singular 
article a ; as, a few men; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the 
article has in these phrases ; it means a sinall or great 
number collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea 
of a whole, that is. of unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a 
score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an 
aggregate of many collectively taken; and therefore still 
retains the article a, though joined as an adjective to a 
plural substantive ; as, a hundred years, &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the 
adjective many, and a singular noun : as, 
"Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

"The dark unfathom'd caves of ncean bear : 
"Full many a flow r is born to blush unseen, 
"And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 
In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many a fiow y r> 
refer to many gems and many ftGwers, separately, not 
eollectively considered. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs 
in the comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect 
is, to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define 
it the more precisely : as, "Tfe more I examine it, ike 
better I like it. I like this the least of any." See this 
Chapter^ the Octavo Grammar. 

CHAP. Ill, 

Of Substantives. 
Secti on i. Of Sithsianiivcs in general. 
A Substantive or Noun is the name of any 
thing that exists, or of which we have any no- 
tion : as, London, man, virtue. 

Substantives are either proper or coihbiojj. ' 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Proper names or substantives, are the names 
appropriated to individuals : as, George, Lon- 
don/Thames. 

Common names or substantives, stand for 
kinds containing many sorts, or for sorts con- 
taining many individuals under them; as, 
animal, man, tree, &c. 

When proper names have an article annex- 
ed to them, they are used as common names : 
as, "He is the Cicero of his age ; he is read- 
ing the lives of the twelve Ccesars." 

Common names may also be used to signify 
individuals, by the addition of articles or projj 
nouns : as, ''The boy is studious; that girl is 
discreet"* 

To substantives belong gender, number, and 
case ; and they are all of the third person when 
spoken of, and of the second when sp&ken to : 
as, "idessiugs attend us on every side; be 
grateful, children of men ! " that is, ye children 
•f men. 

Section 2. Of Gender. 

-Gender is the distinction of nouns, with re- 
gard to sex. There are three genders, the i 
masculine, the feminine, and the neotter. 

'The Masculine Gender denotes animals of 
the male kind :. as, a man, a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of 
the female kind : as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

* Nouns may fclsobe divided into the following classes: Col- 
lective nouns, or nouns of multitude ; as, the people, the parlia- 
ment, the army : Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities i > 
streeted from their substances ; as, knowledge, goodness, wl 
reeg : Verbal or participial nouns j as, beginning, reading,writ)n ) 



ETYMOLOGY. 



4* 



The Neater Gender denotes objects which 
are neither males nor females : as, afield, i 
house, a garden. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by 
a figure of speech, converted into the mascu- 
line or feminine gender : as, when we say of 
the sun, he is setting; and of a ship, she sails 
well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give 
the masculine gender to noun3 which are conspicuous for 
the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which 
are by naturo strong and efficacious. Those, again, are 
made feminine, which are conspicuous for (he attributes 
of containing or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly 
beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is 
said to be masculine; and the moon, being the receptacle 
of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally 
feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise 
made feminine, being receivers or containers. Time fa 
always masculine, on account of its mighty efficacy. Vir- 
tue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the object 
of love. Fortune and tiie church are generally put in the 
feminine gender. 



The English langu: 
guishing the sex. viz. 



■ye has three methods of difc 



]. 


By diffeten 1 . 


words : as. 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


<• Female ; 


Bachelor. 


Maid. 


Gander. 


Goose. 


Boar. 


Sow. 


Hart. 


Roe. 


Boy. 


Girl. 


Horse. 


Mare. 


Brother. 


Sister. 


Husband. 


Wife. 


Buck. 


Doe. 


King. 


Queen. 


Bull. 


Cow. 


Lad. 


Lass. 


Bullock or 
Steer. 


1 Heifer. 


Lord. 
Man. 


Lady. 
Woman. 


Cock. 


Hen. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Dog. 


Bitch. 


Milter. 


Spawner. 


Drake. 


Duck. 


Nephew. 


Niece. 


Earl. 


Countess. 


Ram. 


Ewe. 


Fathei. 


Mother. 


,. 


(i Songstress or 
\ Singer. 


Friar. 


Nun. 


Singer. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Sloven. . 


Slut. 


Uncle. 


Aunt. 


Son. 


Daughter. 


Wizard. 


Witch. 


Stag. 


HinoV 






2. By 


a difference of termination 


: as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot. 


Abbess, 


Landgrave. 


Landgravine, 


Actor. 


Actress. 


Lion. 


Lioness. 


Administrator. 


Administratrix 


. Marquis. 


Marchioness, 


Adulterer. 


Adul tress. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Ambassador. 


Ambassadress. 


Mayor. 


Mayoress. 


Arbiter. 


- Arbitress. 


Patron. 


Patroness. 


Baron. 


Earoness. 


Peer. 


Peeress. 


Bridegroom. 


Bride. 


Poet. 


Poetess. 


Benefactor. 


Benefactress. 


Priest. 


Priestess. 


Caterer. 


Cateress. 


Frince. 


Princess. 


Chanter. 


Chantress. 


Prior. 


Prioress. 


Conductor. 


Conductress. 


Prophet. 


Prophetess. 


Count. 


Countess. 


Protector. 


. Protectress. 


Deacon. 


Deaconess. 


Shepherd. 


Shepherdess. 


Duke. 


Duchess. 


Songster. 


Songstress. 


Elector. 


Elec tress. 


Sorcerer. 


Sorceress. 


Emperor. 


Empress. 


Sultan. 


< Sultaness. 
( SuJtana. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress. 


Executor. 


Executrix. 


Tiger. 


Tigress. 


Governor. 


Governess. 


Traitor. 


Traitress. 


Heir. 


Heiress. 


Tutor. 


Tutoress. 


Hero. 


Heroine. 


Viscount. 


Viscountess. 


Hunter. 


Huntress. 


Votary. 


Votaress. 


Host. [ 


Hostess. 


Widower. 


Widow. 


Jew. 


Jewess, 







3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to 
the substantive : as, 

A cock-sparrow. A hen-sparrow. 

A man-servant. A maid-servant. 

A he-goat. A she-goat. 

A he-bear. A she-bear. 

A male child. A female child. 

Male descendants. Female descendants. 

It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either 
masculine or feminine. The words parent^ cluld, cousin, 
frroid, neighbour, servant, and several others, are used in- 
differently for males or females/ 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to concise- 
Bess and perspicuity of expression. We have only a suffi- 
cient number of them to make us feel our want ; for wlv 

Y 



ETYM0L06T. 47 

we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a 
blijl *< i a weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the ter- 
mi iat; >n, which we cannot avoid ; hut we can s.iy that 
she i* a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, an orphan, 
a companion, because these terminations nave noi annex- 
ed to them (he notion of sex« 

Section 3. Of J\rumber. 

Number is the consideration of an object, as 
one or more. 

Substantives are of two numbers, the singu* 
lar and the pluraL 

The singular number expresses but one ob- 
\ ject ; as, a chair, a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects 
than one; as, chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things 
which they express, ?vi*e used only in the sin- 
gular form ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, 
&c. j others, only in* the plural form ; as, bel- 
lows, scissors, lungs, riches, &e. 

Some words are the same in both numbers : 
as, deer, sheep, swine, &c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally for- 
med by adding* s to the singular: as, clove, 
doves ; face, faces ; thought, thoughts. But 
when the substantive singular ends in x, eh 
soft, sh* ss, or s, we add es in the plural : as, 
box, boxes: church, churches; lash, lashes; 
kiss, kisses : rebus, rebusses; If the singular 
ends in eh hard, the plural is formed by adding 
s ; as, inonarch, monarchs j distich, dtsticfis. 

Nouns d in o,have sometioes es added to the 

plural ; : >< :■., cargo, echo, hero, ntg.O, ma n(Vsio, potato. 
Volcano, wo \ and sometimes onl> $; as, folio, nuncio, 
panctUio, seraglio. 



j* ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nouns ending in /, or fc, are rendered plural by the 
change of those terminations into ves : as, loal, loaves ; 
half, halves ; wife, wives t except grief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, which form the plural by the addition 
of" s. Those which end in ff, have the regular plural : 
as. ruff, ruffs ; except staff, staves. 

Nouns which have v in the singular, with no other 
vowel in the same syllable, change it into ies in the plu- 
ral : as, beauty, beauties; fly, Hies. But the y is not 
chanced when there is another vowel in the syllable : as 
key, keys } delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some" nouns become plural by changing the a ot the 
MDEdjar intoe: as. man, men : woman, women ; alder- 
m« n aldermen. The words, ox and child, form oxen and 
children ; brother, makes either brothers, or brethren 
Sometimes the diphthong oo is changed into ee in ln< 
plural : as, foot, feet ; goose, gees. ; tooth, teeth. Lous 
and mouse make lice and mice. Fenny makes pence, or 
pennies, when the .coin is meant : die, dice (for play ;) 
die, dies (Tor cabling.) 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the gene- 
rality of correct writers, to construe the following words 
as plural nouns; pains, riches, ahns: and also, maihema- 
ties, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, with 
other similar names oi sciences. «;>« 

Dr. Johnson sava that the adjective much is sometimes 
a term of number", as well as of quantity. 1 he may ac- 
count for the instances we meet with of its associating 
with pains as a plural noun : as, "much pains. Ihe 
connexion, however, is not to be recommended. 

The word turvs is now almcftt universally considered 

^TtbiSng words, which have been adopted £>m 
.the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are th^disba- 
guished, with respect to number. 

Cherub. Cherubim. Basis. |££' 

Seraph. Seraphim. Crisis. C>> ; : 

Antithesis. Antitheses. £riienon. treses. 

Automaton. Automata.. Duorww. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



19 



Singular. 
Ellipsis. 
Emphasis. 
Hypothesis. 
Metamorphosis. 
Phenomenon. 

Appendix. < 

Arcanum. 
Axis. 

Calx. 

Datum. 

Effluvium. 

Encomium. % 



Plural. 
Ellipses. 
Emphases. 
Hypotheses. 
Metamorphoses 
Phenomena. 
Appendices or 
Appendixes. 
Arcana. 
Axes. 
Calces. 
Data. 
Effluvia. 
Encomia or 
Encomiums. 



Singular. 
Erratum. 
Genius. 
Genus. 

Index. 

Lamina. 
Medium. 
Magus. 

Memorandum 

Radius. 
Stamen. 
Stratum. 
Vortex. 



. Plural. 
Errata. 
Genii.* 
Genera. 

S Indices or 
Indexes. t 
Laminae. 
Media. ^ 
Magi. 

S Memoranda of 
Memorandums. 
Radii. 
Stamina. 
Strata. 
Vortices. 



Some word3, derived from the learned languages, are 
confined to the plural number : as, antipodes, credenda, 
literati, minutiae. 

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and 
plural, are used in the fame manner- when adopted into 
our tongue : hiatus, apparatus, series, specie^ 

Section 4. Of Case. 

In English, substantives have tbree cases., the 
nominative, the possessive, and the objective, 4 

The nominative case simply expresses the 
name of a thing, or the subject of the verb : jas, 
"The boy plays ;" "The girl learns." 

The possessive case expresses the relation of 
property or possession ; and has an apostrophe 
with the letter * coming after it: as, "The 
scholar's duty;" "My father's house." ' 

When the plural ends in s : the other s is 
omitted, but the apostrophe is retained : as, 
"On eagles' wings;" "The drapers' company." 

* GenvL when denoting aerial spirits : Geniuses, when signify- 
ing persons of geniu?. 

+ /* ien it signifies 'pointers, or Tables of contents: 

Indicts, when referring to Algebraic qtiantiti 

$ The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the 
objective, the accusative* 



50 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Sometimes, also, when the singular termi- 
nates in ss, the apostrophic s is not added : as, 
"For goodness' sake;" "For righteousness' 
sake." 

The objective case expresses the object of an 
action, or of a relation; and generally follows 
a verb active, or a prep# sition : as, "John as- 
sists Charles;" "They live in London." 

English substantives are declined in the fol- 
lowing manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative Case. A mother. Mothers. 

Possessive Case. A mother's. Mothers'. 

Objective Case. A mother. Mothers. 

Nominative Case. The man. The men. 

Possessive Case. The man's. The men's,. 

Objective Case. Tlie man. The men. 

The English language, to express different connexion* 
and relations ofoue tbkgta another, uses for the most 
part, prepositions. The Greek and Latin among tlie an- 
cient, and soma too anraag the modern languages, as the 
German, vary the tetminatioii or ending of the » u0 ^ a £" 
live, to answer the same purpose; an example of which, 
in the Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of the nature ana 
«se of cases, vis. 





Singular. 




Nonihiaiiv 


DoMIjSUS, 


A Lord. 


Genitive. 


Domini, 


Lord's, of a Lord. 


Dative. 


Doming, 


To a Lord. 


Accusative. 


Dominum, 


A Lord. 


jteczHve. 


Doming, 


Lord. 


Ablative, 


DominoJ 
Plural. 


By a Lord. 


Nominative. 


Domini, 


Lords. 


Genitive* 


Domino rum* 


Lords', of Lords 


Hative* 


Doming 


To Lords. 






ETTMOLOGT. 51 

Plural. 

Accusative. Dominos, Lords. 

Vocative. Domini, O Lords. 

Ablative. Domini s, By Lords. 

Some vrriters think, that the relations signified by the 
addition of articles and prepositions to the noun, may 
properly J)€ denominated cases, in English ; and that, on 
this pH ncr*le, there ar?, in our language, as many cases as 
in the LaHn tongue. >iut to this mode of forming cases 
for our substantives, .'here are einmg objections. It would, 
indeed, be a formal and useless arrangement of nouns, 
articles, and prepositions* Ifitasr*^ yCMentcf this na- 
ture were to L -, considered as constitute j k, ses,^lhc Eng- 
lish language would have a much gve^-pr ..u; A ' r 4 of them 
'than the Greek a\id Latin tongues : for, as every prepo- 
sition has its d'ftiict meat::. > L ; anc c Tect, eve: v c.;abina- 
tioa of a preposition apd urticie -\ *"h th? £o0*5, would 
form a different relation. and worM constitute a distinct 
case. — This would encumber ©qr tersg. .ge with many new 
terms, and a heavy and useless l^ad cf distinctions. * 

On the principle of iwitatiHg ot.iSf ^LS^'agcs in name's 
End forms, without a correspondence in nature and id;om> 
we might adopt a nunVsr of dec* Jer !c _, as wsU b.b a vari- 
ety of cases, for English Fubcia: tive^. Thus, fire fcr eht 
declensions, distinguished accord ^ to the v&rious modes 
of forming the plural of substantives, with at loast half a 
dozen cases to each declension, w\£#3 furnish a complete 
arrangement of English nouns, in all tloir trappings. See 
cm this subject, thefthand i. :ith sec/.,.-... of ike sixth chap- 
ter of etymology. 

But though this variety of efc£ss ^oes not at all corres- 
pond with the idiom of our language, there seems to be 
great propriety in admitting a cafee in English substan- 
tives, which 6-Hali serve to dei>ote the objects of active 
verbs and oj prepos'tiossj and which is, therefore, properly 

* If cases are to be distinguished by th« different significations 
©f the_uoim, or by the different relations i t may bear to the gov- 
erning word, then v, e have in our language as many cases almost, 
as there are prepositions: and above a man, beneath a man, beyond 
a man, round about a man, within a man, without a man, &c. 
shall be cases, as well as, of a man, to a man, an<Twnh a man." 

Dr. Bctittit 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

termed the objective case. The general idea of case doubt- 
less has a reference to the termination of the noun : but 
there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in 
which the nominative and accusative cases have precisely 
the same form, and are distinguished only by the relation 
they bear to other words in the sentence. We are there- 
fore warranted, hy analogy, in applying this principle to 
our own language, as far as utility, and the idiom of it, 
will adrift Nov; iris obvious, that in English, £ noun 
governed by an aei.h e verb, or a preposition, is very dif- 
ferently clrcmitstaneedj from a noun in the nominative, or 
in the possessive case ; ancl that a comprehensive case 

that difference, must be useful and pro- 
•irsing, and of showing the connex- 

y, "i of words, will be most conveniently 

Hie adoption of such a ease ;- and the 

r nouns sometimes placed in a sit* 

fcney cannot be said to be in any case at 

tbia work long doubted the propriety of 
hft substantives an objective case : but 
a.] examination of the subject ; an exa- 
mination to which he was prompted by the extensive and 
increasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his 
mind a full persuasion, that the nouns of our language are 
entitled to this comprehensive objective case. 

When the thing to which another is said to belong, is 
expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the 
sign of the possessive case is commonly added to the last 
term : as, "The king of Great Britain's dominions." 

Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive 
case immediately succeed each other, in the following 
form : "Mv friend's wife's sister ; " a sense which would 
be better expressed hy saying, "the eister of my friend's 
wife;" or, "my friend's sister-in-law." Some grammarians 
say, that in each of the following phrases, viz. "A 
book of my brother's,' "A servant of the queen-s," "A sol- 
dier of the king's," there are two genitive cases ; the first 
phrase implving, "one of the books of my brother, the 
next, 'on* of the servants of the queen ? and the last, "one 
of the soldiers of the king," But as the preposition gov- 



60^3 : 




per. T 




ic^ ftti 




B 




all, wii 




The 


autliU r \ 


agslgifii 


ig to E< 


a rene\ 


ved," crh 



ETYMOLOGY. 3$ 

ems the objective case ; and as there are not, in each Of 
these sentences, two apostrophes with the letter s com- 
ing after them, we cannot with propriety eay, that there 
are two genitive cases. 

chapter iv. 

Of Adjectives. 

Section 1 . Of the nature of Adjectives, and the degrees of 
comparison. 

An Adjective is a word added to a, substan- 
tive, to express its quality : as, "An industri- 
ous marif' 4 "A virtuous wsman;" "A benevo- 
lent nmid." 

In English, the adjective knot varied on ac 
eount of gende>, number, ov case. Thus we 
isay, u A careless boy; careless girls." 

The only variation which it admits, is that 
of the degrees of comparison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees 
of comparison; the positive, the cgmfakatiye, 
and the sup^bl atxye. 

Grammarians have generally enumerated these three 
degrees', of comparison : but the first of them has been 
thought fcy some writers, to be, improperly, termed a de- 
gree of comparison ; as it seems to be nothing more than 
the simple form of the adjective, and not to imply either 
comparison or degree. This opinion may be well found- 
ed, unless the adjective be supposed to i&iply comparison 
or degree, by containing a secret; or general reference to 
other things : as, when we say, "he is a tall man/' "this 
is a/air day," we make boine reference to ti:? ordinary 
size of men,, and to different weather. 

The Positive State expresses the quality of 
an object, without any increase or diminution ; 
as, good, wise, great* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.. 

Thfe Comparative Degree increases or les- 
sens the positive in signification : as, wiser, 
greater^ less wise. 

1?he Superlative Degree increases or lessens 
the positive to the highest or lowest degree : as, 
wisest, greatest, least wise. 

The simple word, or positive, becomes the 
comparative^ by adding r or er ; and the su- 
perlative, by adding st or est, to the end of it : 
as, wise, wiser, wisest; great, greater, greatest. 
And the adverbs move and most, placed before 
the adjective, have the same effect : as, wise, 
more wise, most wise. 

The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a 
degree of comparison, by which the signification is dimi- 
nished below the positive : as, black, blackish, or tending 
to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt. 
The word rather is very properly used to express a small 
degree or excess of a quality : as, 'She is rather profuse 
in her expenses.'' 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er 
and est ; and dissyllables by more and most : as, mild, 
" milder, mildest ; frugal, more frugal, most frugal. Dis- 
syllables ending in y ; as, happy, lovely : and in le after 
a mute, as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, 
as, discreet, polite ; easily admit of tr and est : as, bap- 
pier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; politer, politest. Words 
of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of those 
terminations. 

In some words the superlative k formed by adding the 
adverb most to the end of them ; as. nethermost, utter- 
most, or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost. 

In English, a? in' most languages, there are some words 
of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is 
apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in this 
respect : as, "good, tetter, best ; bad, worse, worst ; lit- 
tle, Jess, least : much or many, more, most ; near, near- 
er, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older 
or elder, oldest or eldest f and a few ©then. 



E?TMOLOGX« 55 

An adjective put without a substantive, with the defin- 
ite article before jt, becomes a substantive in sense and 
meaning, and is written as a substantive ; as, ^Provi- 
dence rewards the good, and punishes the badP 

Various nouas placed before other nouns assume the 
nature of adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, 
meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal : 
cardinal, as, one, two, three, (fee. ; ordinal, as, first, ses- 
ond, third, &c. 

Section 2. Remarks on the subject qf Comparison* 

If we consider the subject of comparison attentively, 
we shall perceive that the degrees of it are infinite ia 
number, or at least indefinite. — Amountaiu i3 larger than 
a mite ; — by how many degrees? if ow much bigger is the 
earth than a grain of sand ? By how many degrees was 
Socrates ^riser than Alcibiades ? or by how many is snow 

' whiter than this paper ? It is plain, that to these and the 
like questions, no definite answers can be returned. 

In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured^ 
the degrees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot 
is just twelve times as long as an inch; and an hour is 
sixty times the length of a ru;nute. But, in regard (o quali- 
ties, and to those quantities which cannot be measured 
exactly, it is impossible to say how many degrees may be 
comprehended in the comparative excess. 

But though these degrees ,are infinite or indefinite ia 
fact, they cannot be so in language ; nor would it be con- 
venient, if language were to express many of them. In 
regard to unmeasured quantities and qualities, the degrees 
. of more and less, (besides those marked above,) .nay be 
expressed iatelligibly, at least, if not accurately, by cer- 
tain adverbs, or word3 of like import : as, a Socratefi was 
much wiser than Alcibiades ;"' * Snow is a great deal whi- 
ter than this paper ;" "Eparainondas vras by far the mo3t 
accomplished of the Th'ebans ;" "The evening star is a 

puffery splendid object, but the sun is incomparably more 
splendid ;" "The Deity is infinitely greater than the 
greatest of his creatures." The inaccuracy of the3e, and 
the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience ; 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

and, if it were, it is unavoidable : for human speech cai 
only express human thought i aud *vl : e tnoughj 13 ne- 
cessarily inaccurate, language mcsl be to foo. - 

When the word vcrj* 9 exceedingly > or any other of simi- 
lar import, is put before the positive, it 13 called b\p< »me 
writers the superlative of eminence, to distinguish if from 
the othsr superlative, which has been already mentioned, 
and ia called the fciiperl&iivc of comparis^ Thai, terg 
eloquent sis 'eraied the superlative of Qminer.ee 1 most elo- 
quent, the superlative of comparison. In (he superlative 
eff eminence, ^omethit^ c£ comparison is, however, re- 
motely or indirectly intimated ; for we cannot reasonably 
call a mafl very gfequejsi, without comparing his- eloquence 
with the eloquence pfotiier &se& 

The comparative mzy be so employed, as to express 
the same pre-emineLoe or inferiority as the superlative. 
Thus, the sendee, "Qf aH s^quiremects ; virtue is ths 
most I'llwihie" conveys ih^sarae sentiment as the follow- 
ing ; ''Virtue is more valuable than every othr : r acquire- 
ment." 

chap, v. 

Of Fvonou-ne. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a norni f 
-to .avoid the*too frequent repetition of the same 
-word : as, "The man is happy ; he is benevo- 
lent ; he is useful." 

There are three kinds of pronouns, via. the 
personal^ the relative, and the adjective 

PRONOUNS. 

Section h Of the Personal Pronouns. 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. I, 
thou, he, she, it; with their plurals, we, ye or 
you. they. 

§ 



iou. they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, nuinhef, 
:eader ; amd ease. 

: 



ETYMOLOGY., . 57 

The persons of pronouns are three in each 
number, viz. 

I, is the first person ) 

Thou, is the second person > Singular. 
He, she, or it, is the third person ) 
We, is the first person 1 

Ye or you, is the second person C Phiral. 
They, is the third person 3 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when 
we reflect, that there are three persons who may be the 
subject of any discourse : first, the person who speaks, 
may speak of himself ; secondly, he may speak of the per- 
son to whom he Addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak 
of some other person : and as the speakers, Uie persons 
spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may be many, 
so each Gf these persons must have the plural number. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of sub- 
stantives, are two, the singular and the plural: 
as, I, thou, he ; ive, ye or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person 
singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is 
masculine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same 
time the subjects of the discourse* are supposed to be pre- 
sent ; from which, and ether circumstances, their sex is 
commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a dis- 
tinction of gender in the pronouns : but the third person 
or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects 
unknown? it is necessary that it should be marked by a 
distinction of gender ; at least when some particular per- 
son or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly 
marked : accordingly the pronoun singular of the third 
person has the three genders, fe, shfy it. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominatr 
the possessive, and the objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, ; 






ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



cral, a for-m different from 
tire, or the possessive e&s; 
The personal pronouns 



Second. 

Third. 
Mas. r 

Third. 
Fern. 

Third. 



Person. Case* 

First. JVbm. 
Poss. 

$• 

JSTom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

JV*om. 

Pom. 

Obj. 
J\"om. 
Pocs. 

Obj. 
JSTom. 
J/e uter. Poss. 

Obj. 

Section 2. Of the i *dalive Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns are sueli as relate, m 
general, to some word or phrase going before, 
which is thence called the antecedent : they 
are, who, which, and tl:a< : as, "The man i« 
happy who lives virtue i$iy.*** 

What is a kind of compound relative, inclu- 
ding both the anteceien f and the relative, and 
is mostly equivalent to thai which : as, "This 
is what I wanted ; ? > that is to say, "the thing 
whiiji I wanted.*- 

Who is applied. to persons, which to animals 

relative pronoutt, when used interrogatively, relates to 
phrase which if not antecedent, but subsequent^ to tke 
See note under the VI. Rule oi" Syntax. 



that of the nomina 


arc thus declined: 


LinguiajjiT 


Plural. 


I 


We. 


Mine- 


Ours. 


Me. 


Us. 


Thou, 


Ye or you. 


Viiine. 


Yours. 


Thee. 


You. 


He. 


They. 


His. 


Tneirs. 


Him. 


Them. 


wine. 


They. 


*_£ers 


Theirs. 


Her. 


Them. 


It. 


They. 


Itfe 


Theirs. 


&L 


Them. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

m& inanimate things : as, "He is a friend, 
who is faithful in Adversity ;" "The bird/which 
sung so sweetly, is flown ;" "This is the tree, 
which produces no fruit." 

That, as a relative; is often uicd to prevent 
the too fi repetition of iclio and which. 

It is applied to boiii "pel as, 

"Jle thai arfts wisely deserves praise ; n "Mo- 
desty is a pialti igbiy adorns a woraap." 

#fo is of both ^umbers, and is thus declin- 
ed : 

Singular and IjUural. 

JVomi*iative. Who. 

Posszzsive. "Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Which, tha^ zw\ HiaJ, are likewise of both number?, 
but they do not vary their terminrtioa ; except that whose 
is sometimes used as th« possessive oase of which : as, 
*Is there any other doctrine whose followers are punish- 
ed?" 

<\-\r..l the fruit 

Of that forbidden ireervhese mortal taste 

Brought death/' miltopt. 

— "Pure th^ joy without allay, 

Whose very rapturo ii tranquillity." young, 

"The lights and shad* -, who,* well accorded strife 
Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pop*;. 
"This is one of the clearest characteristics of its be : ng 
& religion whose origin i$ divine." e.air. 

By the use t one word i* substiluietl for 

three : as, W P] wltose e> d is to instruct ea in the 

knowledge of * *ture " for, "JPhijd Q%e end of which 

IS to instruct u 

ffho 9 which, tirA what J i ! rib soever 

am' ever j »rt/r, 

rvhic y isceSt or ::r. ry but 

they arc "Seldom i 

Vhewordi/j dative, sometimes a de- 



•60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

inonstrative pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. It is 
a relative* when it maybe turned into wjw or which with- 
out destroying the sense : as, "They that (who) reprove 
us, may be our best friends ;" "From every thing that 
(which) you see, derive instruction." It is a demonstra- 
tive pronoun when it is followed immediately by a sub- 
stantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which 
it limits or qualides : as, "That boy is industrious ;" 
"That belong to me ;" meaning, that book, that desk, 
&c. It is a conjunction, when it joins sentences together, 
and cannot be turned into who or which? without destroy- 
ing the Sense : as, "Take care that every day be well 
employed/'' "I hope he will believe that I have not acted 
improperly.'' 

Who, which, and what, are called Interrogates, when 
they are used in asking quesiions ; as, "Who is he ?" 
"Which is the book V* 'What art thou doing ?" 

Whether was formerly rxrsde use. of to signify interroga- 
tion : as, "Whether of these shall I choose V y but it is 
now seldom used, the interrogative which being substitu- 
ted for it. Some grammarians tiunkthst the use of it 
should be revived, as, like either and neither, it points to 
the dual number; &\*d woald contribute to render our ex- 
pressions concise and definite. 

Some writers hare classed the interrogatives as a sepa- 
rate kind of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related to 
the relative pronouns, both in nature and form, to render * 
such a diriaion proper. They do not 5 in fact, lose the 
character of relatives, when they become interrogatives. 
The only difference is, that mtlwui an interrogation, 
the relatives have reference to a subject which is antece- 
dent, definite, and known % mih ah interrogation, to a 
subject which is subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, 
and which it is expected that the answer should express 
and ascertain. 

Section 3. Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective, Pronouns are of a mixed nature, 
'participating tbe properties both q£ pronouns 
and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

into four sorts, namely, the possessive, the dis- 
tributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 

1. The possessive are those which relate to 
possession or property. There are seven of 
them ; viz. my, thy, his, her, oar, your, their. 

Mine and thine, .instead of my and thy, were formerly 
used before a substantive, or adjective, beginning 'with a 
vowel, or a silent h : as. "Blot out all mine iniquities." 

The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same forrr^ 
whether they are possessive pronouns, or the possessive 
cases of their respective personal pronouns. See note to 
Rule 10. 

A few examples will probably assist the learner to dis- 
tinguish the possessive pronouns from the genitive cases 
of their correspondent personal pronouns. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pro- 
nouns. — "My lesson is finished ; Thy books are defaced ; 
He loves his studies ; She performs her duty ; We own 
our faults; Your situation is distressing ; I admire their 
virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of 
the personal pronouns. — "This desk is mine ; the o(her 
is thine ; These trinkets are his ; those are hers ; This 
house is ours, and that is yours ; Theirs is very commo- 
dious." 

Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 

The two words own and ^effi are used in conjunction 
with pronouns. Swn is added io possessives, bolh singu- 
lar and plural : as, "My own hand, our own house." It 
is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety or opposi- 
tion : as, "I live in my Gwn house," that is, "not in a 
hired house." Self is added to possess! ?es : as, trtytclf 
yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pronouns.: as, him- 
self, itself, themselves.- ft then, like orvn, expresses em- 
phasis and opposition , as> < I did this myself," that is, 
"not another ;" or it forms a reciprocal pronoun: as, 
"We hurt ourselves by vain rage." 

Himself themselves. &xq now used Sri th'e nominative 
case, instead of hisseffi ilicirselocs ; as, "He came hinj- 
self:" u He Pmself shall do this V "They performed it 
tteinsfelvcs." 

I 




62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The distributive are those, which de 
the persons or things that make up if number- 
as taken separately and singly. They are 
each, every, either : as, " Y f his brothers 

is in a favourable ^Itu? ■>> "Every man 
must account for himself; "I have not seen 
either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and sig- 
nifies either of the two, or every one of any number tak- 
en separately. 

"Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies 
each one of them all taken separately. This pronoun 
was formerly used apart from its noun, but it is now con- 
stantly annexed to it, except in legal proceedings : a3 in 
the phrase, "all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separate- 
ly, and signifies the one or the other. To say, "either of 
the three, 59 is- therefore imoroper. 

Neither imports "not either p that is, not one nor tht 
other : as, "Neither of my friends was there." 

3. The demonstrative are those which pre- 
cisely point out the subjects to which they re- 
late : this and that, these a.nd those, are of this 
class : as, "This is true charity 5 thatis only 
its imaged 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to 
the most distant : as, "This man is more intelligent than 
that" This indicates the latter or last mentioned ; that, 
the former or first mentioned ; as "Both wealth and pov- 
erty are temptations \ iitat> tends to excite pride, this, 
discontent. 5 ' 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly 
ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially 
in many of their applications., The- following sentence 
may serve as an example ; "It was happy for the state, 
that FabiUS eominued in the command with Minucius ; 
the /m>: Legm was a check upon the latter *$ viva- 

' city> 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

4. The indefinite^ are those which express 
their subjects in an indefinite or general man- 
ner. The following arc of this kind : some, 
other, any, one, all, such, &c. 

Of these pronouns, only (he words one and other are va- 
ried. One has a possessive case, which it forms in the 
same manner as substantives : as, one, one's. This word 
has a general signification, mea#ing 'people at large; and 
sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
speaking : as, "One ought to pity the distresses of man- 
kind." 'One is apt to love one's self." This word ia 
often used, by good writers, in the plural number : as, 
'•The great ones of the world ;" "The boy wounded the 
old bird, and stole the young ones f "My wife and the 
little ones are in good health." 

Oiker is declined in the following manner : 
Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Other Others. 

Poss. Other's Oihers\ 

Obj. Other Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun 
to which it refers, whether expressed or understood : as, 
"When you have perused these papers, i will send you 
the others.'' "He pleases some, but he disgusts others." 
When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or 
plural, it has no variation : as, "the other man," "the 
other men." 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the in- 
definite pronouns. "Some of you are wise and good ;" "A 
few of them were idle, the others industrious ;" "Neither 
is there any that is unexceptionable ;" "One ought to 
know one's own mind ;" "They were all present ;" "Such 
is the state of man, that he is never at rest ;" "Some are 
happy, while others are miserable," 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article 
prefixed to the word other 

None is used in both numbers : as, "None is so deaf as 
he that will not hear ;" "None of those are equal to 
these." It seems originally to have signified, according 
to its derivation, not one. and therefore to have had bo 
plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in the 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 






plural number : "None that go unto her return again. 1 
Prov. ii. 19. "Terms of peace were none vouchsaf 'd." 
Milton. "None of them are varied to express the gen- 
der." "None of them have different endings for the 
numbers." Lowth's Introduction. "None of their pro- 
ductions are extant." Blair. 

We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the ad- 
jective pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them 
intelligibly: but it is difficuit,^)erhaps impracticable, to 
define and divide them in a manner perfectly unexcep- 
tionable. Some of them, in particular, may seem to re- 
quire a different arrangement- We presume, however, 
that, for every useful purpose, the present classification is 
sufficient!}^ correct. AH the pronouns, except the per- 
sonal and relative, may indeed, in a general view of them, 
be considered as definitive pronouns, because they define 
or ascertain the extent of the common name, or general 
term, to which they refer, or are joined ; but as each 
class of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a man- 
ner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to this circum- 
stance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, and 
the understanding of learners. 

It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that 
the words this, that, any, some, such, his, their, our, &c. are 
pronouns, when they are used separately from the nouns, 
to which they relate ; but that, when they are joined to 
those nouns, they are not lo be considered as belonging 
to this species of words; because, in this association, they 
rather ascertain a substantive, than supply the place of 
one. They assert that, in the phrases, "give me that," 
"this i3 John's," and "such were some of you," the words 
in italics are pronouns ; but that, in the following phra- 
ses, they are not pronouns ; "this book is instructive," 
-some boys are ingenious," "my health is declining," 
'our hearts are deceitful,' &c. Other grammarians think, 
that all these words are pure adjectives ; and that none 
of them can properly be called pronouns ; as the genuine 
pronoun stands by itself, without the aid of a noun ex- 
pressed or understood. They are of opinion, that in the 
expressions, * Give me that," "this is JohriV' &c. the 
ftotin is always understood, and must be supplied in the 
mind of the reader : as, "Give me thai book /' "this book 




ETYMOLOGY. 65 

is John's ;" "and such persons were seme persons amongst 
you." 

Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should 
be classed into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under 
the former, they include the personal and the relative ; 
under the latter, all the others. But this division, though 
a neat one, does not appear to be accurate. All the rela- 
tive pronouns will not range under the substantive head* 
We have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode 
which v>e think most correct and intelligible : but for the 
information of students, and to direct their inquiries on 
the subject, we state the different opinions of several ju- 
dicious grammarians. See the Octavo Grammar cm these 
point3. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Of Verbs. 
t Section 1. Of the nature cf Verbs in general. 
A verb is a word which signifies to be. to 
do. or to suffer ; as, "I a;j&, I rule. I am rul- 
ed. - ? 

Verbs' are of three kinds ; active, passive, 
and neuter. They are also divided into re- 

GULAR, IRREGULAR, and DEFECTIVE.* 

• Verbs have been distinguished by some writers Into the fol- 
lowing kind?. 

1st. Active-transitive, or th'ose which denote an action that 
\ passed from the agent to some object : as, Ces;,r conquered Pom- 
pey. " ;» 

2d. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of ac- 
tion, which has no effect upon any thing beyond the agent him- 
self: as, Cesar walked. 

3d. Passive, or those which express, not rxlicr but passion, 
v, nether phasing or painful : as, Portia was loved,' Poiripey wai 
conquered. . ^ J 

4th. Keuier, or ttfose which express an attribute that consist* 
neither in action nor passion : as, Cesar. stood. 

This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class 
ct achve-pifransilivt verbs were adml tte4, : it would rather p< • 
than assist the learner; for the difference between verbs acthe 
and % neuter, as transitive and intraasitr .;. gu » ; 

0* 



•$ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Verb Active expresses an action, and ne- 
cessarily implies an agent, and an object acted 
upon : as, to love ; «l love Penelope." 

A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a 
suffering, or the receiving of an action j and 
necessarily implies an object acted upon, and 
an agent by which it is acted upon : as, to be 
loved ; "Penelogp-is loved by me/ ? 

A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor 
passion, but being, or a state of being : as, "I 
am, I sleep, I sit." 

The verb active is also called transitive, because the 
action passes over to the object, or has an effect upon 
some ether thing : as, 'the tutor instructs his pupils { 
*I esteem the man. 5 

Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransi- 
tives, because the effect is confined within the subject, 
and does not pass over to any object : as, 'I sit, he lives, 
they sleep.' 

Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neu- 
ters, make a near approach to the nature of a verb active ; 
but they may be distinguished from it by their being in- 
transitive : as, to run, to walk, to fly, &e. The rest are 
more obviously neuter, and more clearly expressive of a 
middle state between action and passion : as, to stand, 
to lie, to sleep, &c. 

In English, many verbs are used both in an active and 
a neuter signification, the construction only determining 
of which kind they are : as, to flatten, signifying to make 
even or level, is a verb active ; but when it signifies to 
grow dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter. 

A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may 
become a compound active verb. To smile is a neuter 
verb ; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective 
case, nor be construed as a passive verb. We cannot say, 
$}ie smiled him, or, he was smiled. But to smile on being 

but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and intransi- 
tively active, is not always clear. It k > indeed, i>ften very di(E- 
ruMo be ascertained. 



ETYMCLC6*. C7 

a compound active verb, we properly say, she smiled on 
him ; he was smiled on by fortune iu every undertaking. 

Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by 
the help of which the English verbs are pria- 
cipally conjugated. They are, do, be, have, 
shall, will, may, can, with their variations ; 
and let and must, which have no variation.* 

In our definition of the verb, as dtfkrt of speech which 
signifies to be. to do, or to suffer, &c^^ve have included; 
every thing, either expressly or by necessary conse- 
quence, that 13 qpentia! to its nature, and nothing that is 
not essential to it. This definition is warranted by the 
authority of Dr. Lowth, and of many other respectable 
writers on grammar* There are, however, some grani^ 
raariana, who consider assertion as the essence of the 
verb, But, as the participle and the infinitive, if includ- 
ed in it, would prove insuperable objections to their 
scheme, they have, without hesitation, denied the former 
a place in the verb, ar>d declared the latter to be merely 
an abstract noun. This appears to be going rather toe* 
far in support of an hypothesis. It seems to be incum- 
bent on these gramrmrians, to reject also the imperative 
mood. What part of speech would they make the verbs 
in the following sentence ? "Depart instantly : improve 
your time : forgive us our sins." Will it be said, thaS 
the verbs in these phrases are assertions ? 

In reply to Ihese questions, it has been said, that "De- 
part instantly," is an expression equivalent to, "I desire 
you to depart instantly ;" and that as the latter phrase 
implies affirmation or assertion, so does the former. But 
supposing the phrases to be exactly alike in sense, the 
reasoning is not conclusive. 1st In the latter phrase, the 
only part implying affirmation, is, 'I desire.' The words 
*to depart,' are in the infinitive mood, and contain no 
assertion ; they affirm nothing. 2d. The position is not 
tenable, that 'Equivalence in sense implies similarity in 
grammatical nature. 5 It proves too much, and therefore 
nothing. This mode of reasoniag would confound th^ 

* £e/, as a principal verb, ha* leliest and httelh ; bat as + 
loping verb, it admits of no variation. 



&& KNGLrSH GRAMMAA. 






acknowledged grammatical distinction of words. A pro- 
noun, on this principle, may be proved to be a noun ; a 
notm, a verb ; an abverb, a noun and preposition ; the 
superlative degree, the comparative ; the imperative 
mood, the indicative ; the future tense, the present; and 
soon : because they may respectively be resolved into 
similar meanings. Thus, in the sentence, <I desire you 
to depart,' th# words to depart, may be called a noun, be- 
cause they are^gHWent in sense to the noun departure^ 
In the foliowisfflentence, 'I desire your departure^' The 
words 'depart instantly,' may be*%[oved to be, not the 
imperative mood with aa adverb, but tin* indicative and 
infinitive, with a noun and preposition ; tor they are 
equivalent to 'I desire you to depart in an instant. 5 The 
superlative degree in this sentence, k Of all acquirements 
virtue is the most valuable,' may pass for the compara- 
tive > because it conveys the same sentiment as, 'Virtue is 
more valuable than eveiy other acquirement.' 

We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the 
reader must be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the 
equivalent sentence, implies affirmation ; and that one 
phrase may, in sense, be equivalent to another, though 
its grammatical nature is essentially different. 

To verbs belong number, person, mood, 
and tense. 

Section 2. Of Number and Person. 
Verbs have two numbers, the Singular anc 
the Plural : as ? "I run, we run," &c. 

lu each number there are three persons ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I love. We love. 

Second Person. Thou lovest. Ye or you love. 

Third Person. He loves. They love. 

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings to 
express, or agree with, different persons of the same num- 
ber ; as, 'I love, thou lovest ; he loveth, or loves ;\ and al- 
so to express different numbers of the same person : as, 
•thou lovest, ye love ; he loveth, they love.'* In the plural 
number of the verb* there is no variation of ending to ex- 

4*.- * w 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

press the different persons ; and the verb, in the three 
persons plural, is the same as it is in the first person sin- 
gular. Yet this scanty provision of terminations is suffi- 
cient for all the purposes of discourse, and no ambiguity 
arises from it : the verb being always attended, either 
with the noun expressing the subject acting or acted 
upon, or with the pronoun representing it. For this rea- 
son, the plural termination in en, they lovcn, they ivercn, 
formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, and h*$ 
long been obsolete. 

Section. 3. Of Moeds and Participles. 
Mood or Mode is a particular form of the 
verb, showing the manner in which the being, 
^action, or passion, is represented. 

The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly ex- 
plained to the scholar, by observing, that it consists in 
the change which the verb undergoes, to signify various 
intentions of the mind, and various modifications and cir- 
cumstances of action : which explanation, if compared 
with the following account ai>d uses of the different 
moods, will be found to agree # with mi illustrate them. 

There are five moods of verbs, the indica- 
tive, the IMPERATIVE; the POTENTIAL; the 

subjunctive, and the infinitive. 

The Indicative Mood simply Indicates or 
declares a thing : as, "He loves, he is loved:'* 
or it asks a question : as, "Docs he love ?" 
"Is he loved ?" 

The Imperative Mood is used for command- 
ins;, exhorting, entreating, or permitting : as, 
"Depart thou 5 mind ye : let us stay ; go in 
peace." 

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation 
of command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite 
nature, even in the humblest supplications of an inferior 
being to one who is infinitely his superior : as, 'Give U9 
this day ©ur daily bread ; ajid forgive us our trespasses? 



70 ENGLISH CHAMMATt. 

The Potential Mood implies possibility or 
liberty, power, will, or obligation : as, "It 
may rain ; he may go or stay, I can ride ; he 
would walk ; they should learn/ 1 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing 
under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, 
&c. and is preceded by a conjunction, ex- 
pressed or understood, and attended by another 
verb; as, "I will respect him, though he 
chide me ;" "Were he good, he would be 
happy ;" that is, fHf he were good." — See note 
8 to Mule 19. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a 
general and unlimited manner, without any 
distinction of number or person ; as, "to act, 
to speak, to be feared." 

The participle is a certain form of the verb, 
and derives its name from its participating, 
not only of the properties of a verb, but also of 
those of an adjective : as, "I am desirous of 
"knowing him ;" "admired and applauded, he 
became vain ?' "Having finished his work, he 
submitted it, &c. 

There are three participles, the Present or 
Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Cora- 
pound Perfect : as, ''loving, loved, having 
loved. v 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we 
have represented the present participle, as active; and 
the past, as passive ; but they are not uniformly so : the 
present is sometimes^assive ; and the past is frequently 
active. Thus, >f The youth was consuming by a slow ma- 
lady ;' 'The Indian was burning by the cruelty of his 
enemies;' appear to be instances of the present participle 
being used passively. 'He has instructed me ; I have 
gratefuliyr^aidhis kindness j are examples, of the past 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

participle being applied in an active sense, We may 
also observe, tnat the present participle is sometimes as- 
sociated wiRi the past and future tenses of the verb; and 
the past participle contoecjed with the present and future 
tenses. — The most unexceptionable distinction which 
grammarians make between the participles, is, that the 
one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or 
state denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the comple- 
tion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect 
action, or action begun and not ended : as, 4 I am writing 
a letter.' The past participle signifies action perfecte d % 
or finished : as, % I have written a letter;' 'The letter is 
written?* 

The participle b distinguished from the adjective, by 
the former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's 
denoting only a quality. The phrases, 'loving to give as 
well as to receive,' 'moving in haste,' 'heated with liquor^ 
contain participles giving the idea of time ; but the epi- 
thets contained in the expressions, 'a loving child,' 'a 
moving spectacle ' 'a healed imagination,' mark simply 
the qualities referred to, without any regard to time ; and 
may properly be called participial adjectives.. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but 
they aho signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns 
and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do; and there- 
| fore should be comprehended in the general name of 
verbs. That they are mere mode3 of the verb, is mani- 
fest, if our definition of a verb be admitted ; for they sig- 
nify being, doing, or suffering, with the designation of 
time superadded. But if the essence of the verb be made 
m to consist in affirmation or assertion, not only the parti- 
ciple will be excluded from its place in the verb, but the 
infinitive itsetf aljsq : which certain ancient grammarians 
of great authority held to be alone the genuine verb, sim- 
ple and unconnected with persons bnti .circumstances. 

The following phrases, even when considered in them- 
selves, show that participles include the iu*»u of time: 
"The letter being written, or hati Men /" 

• When this t a <] to the. verb to hove, w ii rr^led 

per/at ; vvhen to the verb to fee, or ur« 

it it deaoaiiaaum pew . 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Charles being writing, having written, or having been 
rvritingP But when arranged in au entire sentence, 
which they must be to make a complete sense, they show 
it still more evidently : as^ "Charles having written the 
letter, sealed and dispatched it." — The participle does 
indeed associate with different tenses of the verb ; as, "I 
am writing," "I was writing," 'I shall be writing :" but 
this forms no just 6fejection to its denoting time. If the 
time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, far 
from disproving, supports our position.f See observations 
under Rule 1 3 of Syntax. 

Participles sometimes perform the office of substan- 
tives, and are used as such ; as in the following instances : 
"The beginning /' u a good understanding ;" "excellent 
writing ;" "The chancellor's being attached to the king 
secured his crown :*' "The general's having failed in 
this enterprise occasioned his disgrace ;" "John's having 
been writing a long time had wearied him " 

That the words in italics of the three latter examples, 
perform the office of substantives, and may be considered 
as sichj will be evident, if we reflect, that the first of 
them has exactly the same meaning and construction a3, 
"The chancellor's attachment to the king secured his 
crown;" that the other examples will bear a similar 
construction. The words, being attached, govern the word 
chancellor's in the possessive case, in the one instance, a> 
clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the other: 
and it is only substantives, or words and phrases which 
operate as substantives, that govern the genitive or pos- 
sessive case. 

The following sentence is riot precisely the same as the 
above, either in sense or construction., though, except the 
genitive case, the word3 are the same ; "The chancellor, 
being attached to the king, secured his crown." In the 
former, the words, being ^attached* form the nominative 
case to the verb, and are stated as the cause of the effect; 
ia the hater, they are not the nominative case, and make 
only a chcuimiance to chancellor, which is the. proper 

f From the very d attire of time, an action may be present now, 
it may have been present formerly, or it rcay be present at some 
future period— yet who ever supposed, that tie present of I i ' 
indicative denotes no time ? Encgclopozdia Brilarn 



JETYMOLOGf. *3. 

nominative. It may not be improper to add another 
form of this sentence, by which the learner may better 
understand the peculiar nature and form of each of these 
modes of expfession : "The chancellor being attached to 
the king, his crown was secured." This constitutes 
what is properly called, the Case Absolute. 

Section 4. Remarks on the Potential Mood. 
That the Potential Mood should be separated from the 
subjunctive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion 
which are produced by their being blended together, and 
from the distinct nature of the two moods ; the former of 
which may be expressed without any condition, supposi- 
tion, &c. as will appear from the following instances : 
"They might have done better;" "We may always act 
uprightly ;" "He w r as generous, and would not take re- 
venge ;" "We should resist the allurements of vice ;" "I 
could formerly indulge myself in things, of which I can- 
not now think but with pain." 

Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential 
Mood, as distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coin- 
cides with the Indicative. But as the latter "simply in- 
dicates or declares a thing," it is manifest that the for- 
mer, which modifies the declaration, and introduces an 
idea materially distinct from it, must be considerably 
* different. "I can walk," "I should walk," appear to be 
so essentially distinct from the simplicity of, "I walk," 
"I walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction of 
moods. The Imperative and Infinitive Moods, which are 
allowed to retain their rank, do uQt appear to contain 
such strong marks of discrimination from the Indicative, 
as are found in the Potential Mood. 

There are other writers on this subject, who exclude 
the Potential Mood from their division, because it is form- 
ed, not by varying the principal verb, but by means of the 
auxiliary verbs may, can, might, could, would, &c. : but 
if we recollect, that moods are used "to signify various 
intentions of the mind, and various modifications and cir- 
cumstances of action," we shall perceive that those aux- 
iliaries, far from interfering with this design, do, in <he 
clearest manner, support and exemplify it.^O-i ihe j^ason 
..Alleged by these writers, the greater part of th^udic* 



74 ENGLISH GHAMMAR. 






tive Mood must also be excluded ; as but a small part of 
it is conjugated without auxiliaries. The Subjunctive too 
-\vili fare no better ; since it so nearly resembles the Indi- 
cative, and is formed by means of conjunctions, expres- 
ed or understood, which do not more effectually show the 
varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do 
which are used to form the Potential Mood. 

Some writers have given our moods a much greater ex- 
tent than we have assigned to them. They assert that the 
English language may be said, without any great impro- 
priety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs ; 
and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the com- 
pound expression which they help to form, point out those 
various dispositions and actioas,which, in other languages, 
are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the 
moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the 
conjugation or variation of verbs, in the English language, 
is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. 
We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this cir- 
cumstance; and do thai by their assistance, which has been 
done in the learned languages, (a few instances to the 
contrary excepted,) in another manner, namely, by vary- 
ing the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is 
necessary to set proper bounds to this business, so as not | 
to occasion obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be • 
gimple and perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a 
separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and introducing 
moods Interrogative, Optative^ Promfasive> Hortative, Pre- 
eative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously 
distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold 
and display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem 
to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to answer 
all the purposes for which moods were introduced. 

From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make 
their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, 
on the principles and construction of languages which, 
jo these points, tlo noi suit the peculiar nature of our own, 
but differ Considerably from it, we may naturally expect, 
grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor 
perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex 
thaa iiiorm the learaer. See pages 78—80 .97. 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

Section 5. Of the Tenses. 
Tense, being the distinction of time, might 
seem to admit only of the present, past, and 
future ; but to mark it more accurately, it is 
inade to consist of six variations, viz. the pre- 
sent, the imperfect, the perfect, the plu- 
perfect, and the first and second future 

TENSES. 

The Present Tense represents an action or 
event, as passing at the time in which it is men- 
tioned : as, "I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ;' I 
fear." 

Th^ present tense likewise expresses a character, qual- 
ity, &c. at present existing : as, ^He is an able man f 9 
"She is an amiabie woman. 5 ' It is also used in speaking 
of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the 
present time : as, "He frequently rides;" "He "walks out 
every morning ;" "He goes into the country every sum- 
mer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons 
long since dead : as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes 
well ;" "Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, be- 
fore, after;, as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out 
the relative time of a future action : as, When he arrives 
he will hear the news;' *He will hear the news before he 
arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at farthest, soon after 
he arrives ;' 'The more she improves, the more amiable 
she 'will be.' 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is some- 
times substituted for the imperfect tense : as, fc He enters 
the territory of the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights and 
conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides 
amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty 
iriumph.'' 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action 
or event, either as past and finished, or as re- 
maining unfinished at a certain time past : as, 
"X loved her for ' """ "and virtue y\ 



1& ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

"They were travelling post when he met them.* 
The Perfect Tense not only refers to what 
is past, but also conveys an allusion to the 
present time : as, "I have finished my letter f 
f <l have seen the person that was recommend- 
ed to me." 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing 
ef the letter, though past, w*s at a period immediately, 
*>r very nearly, preceding the present time. In the lat- 
ter instance, it is uncertain whether the person mention- 
ed was seen by the speaker a long or short time before. 
The meaning is, ' I have seen him some time in the course 
•f a period which includes, or comes to, the present 
time.' When the particular time of any occurrence is 
Specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is nofe 
used : for it would be improper to say, 'I have seen him 
yesterday ;' or, C I have finished my work last week.' In 
these cases the imperfect is necessary: as, 'I saw him 
yesterday;' 'I finished my work last week.' But when 
we speak indefinitely of my thing past, as happening or 
not happening in the day, year, or age, in which we 
mention "H* the perfect must be employed: as, 'I have 
teen there this .morning;' 'I have travelled much this 
year :' 'We have escaped many dangers through life.' In 
referring, however, to such a division of the day as is 
past before the time of our speaking, we use the imper- 
fect : as, 'They came home early this morning ;' 'He was 
with them at three o'clock this afternoon.' 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote 
a thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a 
manner, that there is still actually remaining some part 
of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing- 
has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing 
or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of 
that time in which it was done. If we speak of the pre- 
sent century, we say, 'Philosophers have made great dis- 
coveries in the present century .' but if we speak of th 
last, century, we say, 'Philosophers made great disco v 
cries in the last century.' * 'He has been much afflict 
ed this year;' ' r ~ ^k read the king's procla 

mation ;' C I hat h\ 3 morning.' In t* 



ETYMOLOGY. $ I 

their nature and their differences, is a much more useful 
exercise, as well as more proper for a work of this kind, 
than to raise, as might easily be raised, new theories oa 
the subject." 

Section 6. The Conjugation oftlie auxiliary verb* 
TO KA.V E Cl?ld TO BE. 

The conjugation of a verb, is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several 
numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. 

The conjugation of an active verb is styled 
the active voice ; and that of a passive verb,, 

the PASSIVE VOICE. 

The auxiliary and active verb to have, is 
conjugated in the following manner! 





TfyHAVE. *-* 


Indidfriive Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Pers. I have. 1. We hare. 

2. Pers, Thou hast. 2. Ye or you have, 

3. Pers. He* she, or it ) ^, , 

bath or has. \ 3. They have. 


Singular. 

1. I had. 

2. Thouhadst. 

3. He, &c. had. 


Imperfect Tense.* 

Plural. 

1. We had. 

2. Ye or you h3d> 

3. They had. 


Singular. 

1. I have had. 

2. Thouvhast had. 

3. He has had. 


Perfect Tense* 

Plural. 

1. We have had. 

2. Ye or you have had. 

3. They have had. 


Singular. 
1. I had had. 


Pluperfect Tense.* 
Plural. 
1. We had had. 



The terms whicj^e have adopted, to designate tke tfcree 



S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Thou hadst had. 2. Ye or you had had. 

3. He had had. 3. They had had. 

First Future Ttnse* 
Singular. Plural. t 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will ha 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2.Ye or you shall or will havb 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had 
-3. He will have had. 3* They will have had 

Imperative Mood. 
v Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 

2. Have, or have thou, or 2. Have, or have ye, 

do thou have. you have. 

3. Let him have. 3. Let them have.f 

The imperative mood i3 not strictly entitled to three 
persons. The command is always addressed to the second 
person, not to the first or third. For when we say, "Let 
me have,'' ''Let him, or let them have," the meaning 
and construction are, do thou, or do ye, let me, him, or 
them have. In philosophical strictness, both number and 
person might be entirely excluded from every verb. 

past tenses, may not be exactly significant of their nature aid 
distinctions. But as they are used by grammarians in general, 
and have an established authority ; and, especially, as the mean- 
ing attached to each of them, and their different significations, 
have been carefully explained ; we presume that no 'solid objec- 
tiom can be made to trie use of terms so generally approved, and 
*o explicitly defined. See pages 80 and 83. We are supported 
in these sentiments by the authority of Dr. Johnson, bee the 
first note in his "Grammar of the English tongue," prefixed to his 
dictionary. If, however, any teachers should think it warranta- 
ble to chansre the established names, they cannot perhaps find 
any more appropriate, than the terms first preterit, second pre- 
terit, and third preterit. See the Octavo Grammar. 

t If such sentences should be rigorously examined, the Impe- 
rative will appear to consist merely in the word let. See Dirtc* 
lions for Parsing, 



ETYMOLOGY, *£3 

They are, in fact, the properties of substantive?, not a 
part of the essence of a verb. Even the name of the 
imperative mood, does not always correspond to its nature : 
for it sometimes petitions as well as commands. ETut, with 
respect to all these points, the practice of our gramma- 
rians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to "the lan- 
guages, ancient and modern, which our youth have to 
study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of inno- 
vation to deviate from the established teflpa und arrange- 
ments. See the adveriismmt at the end of the Introduc- 
tion, page 7 ; and the quotation from the Encyclopedia 
Brittannica, page 80. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have. L We may or can have. 

2. Thou raayst or canst have.2. Ye or you may or can havfc 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have. or should have. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
Vouldst, or shouldst have, would, or should have. 

S. He imght, could, would, 3, They might could, wouM, 
or should have. or should have. 

e . , Perfect Tense. 

Sin^nar, - PIuraL 

1 . I may or can have had. 1 . We may or can have had. 

2. Thou may, t(?r canst have 2. Ye or you mayor ca« 
u had - have had. 
He may or can have had. 3. They mayor can have had. 



'3 



c . - Pluperfect Tense. 



I- I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would. 

,p, uId have ,,a(i - or should have had. 

|. ihou mightst, couldst. 2. Ye or you might, could, 
\ woutdst, webouldstbave would, or should have 

1 flad - had. 



$4 ENGLl SH GE AMM AH. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, wo^W, 
or should have had. or should have had. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Ttnse. 
Singular. Plural - 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have.t 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he have.f 3. If they have. 

The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are, in 
every respect, similar to the correpondent tenses of the 
indicative mood 4 with the addition to the verb, oi a 
conjunction, expressed or implied, denoting a condition, 
motive, wish, supposition, &e. It will be proper to direct 
the learner to repeat all the tenses of this mood, w¥ ha 
conjunction prefixed to each of them. See, on this sub- 
ject, the observations at page 09 ; and the notes on the 
nineteenth rule of syntax. 

Infinitive Mood. 
resent. To have. perfect. To have bad. 

Participles. 
present or active. Having. 
perfect. Had. 

compound perfect. Having had. 

* <thn.V and mill when they denote inclination, resolution, pfo- 

junctive moods. - ■ .* 

t Grammarian S ,ingeneral, conjugate ;*»!£«** * » ^ 
;«rv in this manner. But we presume that this is tne torin oi 
53& consS a* a p&*£, not as an««*ife«r* verb. ■ 

t Except that the second and third persons, .^« «* d P$ 
raV of the second future tense, require the auxiliary f^'^ 
£ Lcr^rfl. Thus, "Hemahavecomp^^* 
by midsummer," is the indicate form : but &£?*"*" ' 
*!£ he shall have cempleted the work by uucUurciaer. 



ETYMOLOGY. S5 

As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no variation, 
in the form of the ver&, from the indicative, (except in the 
present tense, and the second future tense, of verbs gene- 
rally, and* the present and imperfect tenses of the verb 
to be,) it would be superfluous to conjugate it in this work, 
through every tense. But aU the other nio6ds and tensoe 
of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are 
conjugated at large, that the learners may have no doubts 
or misapprehensions respecting their particular forms. 
They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, 
and young persons especially, are much more reality and 
effectually instructed, by seeing the parts of a silhject so 
essentia] as the verb, unfolded and spread before them, 
in all their varieties, than by being generally and curso- 
rily informed of the manner in which tfley may be exhi- 
bited. The time employed by the scholars, in conse- 
quence of this display of the verbs, is of small moment, 
compared with the advantage* which they will probably 
derive from the plan. 

It may not, however, be generally proper for young 
persons beginning the study of gfammar, to commit to 
niem&ry all the tenses of the verbs. M the simple Senses, 
namely, the present and the imperfect, together with the 
Jirst future tcnsc x should, in the first instance, be commit- 
ted to memory, and ihe rest careOy perused and ex- 
, plained, the business will not be tedious to the scholars, 
end their progress will be rendered more obvious and 
pleasing. The general view of the subject, thus acquir- 
ed and impressed, may afterwards be extended with ease 
and advantage. 

It appears to be proper, for the information of the 
learners, to make a few observations in this place, on 
some of the tenses, &c The first is, that, in the poten- 
tial mood, some grammarians confound the present vvitk 
the imperfect tense; and thaperf<*ct with the pluperfect. 
But that they are really distinct, and have an appropriate 
reference to time*, correspondent to the definitions of 
thoae tenses, will appear from a few examples : "I wish- 
ed him to stay, but he would not ;" "I could not sccoua- 

sh the business in time ;" "It «t$s ury dmciicn tat 
should submit ;" "lie was ill, but 1 thongltt 
live;" "I may hate minmdertfood hmy : *%$tymtf 
8 



86 "ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

have deceived me ;," "He might have finished the wopk 
sooner, but he could not have done it better." — It must, 
however, be admitted, that, on some occasions, the aux- 
iliaries might, could, would, and should, refer also t© pre- 
sent and to future time. See page 77. 

The nest remark is, that the auxiliary will, in the first 
person singular and plural of the second future tense ; 
and the auxiliary shall, in the second and third persons 
of that tense, in the indicative mood, appear to be incor- 
rectly applied. The impropriety of such associations 
may be inferred from a few examples : "1 mil have had 
previous notice, whenever the event happens ;" "Thou 
shall have served thy apprenticeship before the end of 
the year;" "He shall have completed his business when 
the messenger arrives." "I shall have had ; thou will 
have served; he will have completed," &c. would have 
been correct and applicable. The peculiar import of 
these auxiliaries as explained in page 92, under section 
7, seems to account for their impropriety in the applica- 
tions just mentioned. 

Some writers on Grammar pbject to the propriety ef 
admitting the second future, in both the indicative and 
subjunctive moods : but that this tense is applicable to 
both moods , will be manifest from the following exam- 
ples. "John will have earned his wages the nexi new- 
year's day," is a simple declaration, and therefore in the 
iadicative mood : "If he shall have finished his work 
\v>en the bell rings, he will be entitled to the reward," 
is conditional and contingent, and is therefore in the sub- 
junctive mood. 

We shall conclude these detached observations, with 
oae remark whitfh may be useful to the young scholar, 
namely, that as the indicative mood is converted into the 
subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, motive, 
wish, supposition, &c, being superadded to it; so the 
potential mood may. in like manner, be turned into the 
subjunctive ; as will be seen in the following examples : 
"14*1 could deceive him, I should abhor it;" "Though 
he should increase in wealthy he would not be charita- 
ble ;" "Even in prosperity he would sain no esteem, wv 
legs he iliould conduct himself better.* 9 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Si' 



The auxiliary and neuter verb To Be, is 
cbnjugated as follows : 



TO BE. 
Indicative Mood* 







Present Tense, 




Singular. 

... I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He, j&he, or it 


FJural. 

1 . We are. 

2. Ye or you are. 
is. 3. They are. 




Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 


Imperfect Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. Ye Gr you were. 

3. They were. 

Pufeet Tense. 


1, 

2. 
3. 


Singular. * 
, I have been. 
Thou hast been, 
He hath or has ! 


Plural. 

1. W r e have been. 

2. Ye or you have been* 
beea. 3, They have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singulas. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. Ye or you had been. 

3. He bad been. 3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 

3. He will httve been. 3. They will have been. 



g?» ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singftkr* Plural. 

1. Let me be. 1. I^et us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be, 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 
S, Lei Mm be. 3. Let them be. 

Potential Mood. 

I 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may er can be. 1. We may or can bje. 

2. Thou rnayst or teanstbe. 2. Ye w* yon may or can be» 

3. He may or ean be. 3, They may or can be. 

Imperfect T trite. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, weald, 1. We might, could," wtould, 
or should be. or should be. 

2. Thou mightst, ooirfrfef, 2. Ye or you might, could,, 
wouldst, or sjlouldsi be. would, q/ should be. 

S. He mightj could, would*, 3. They might, eould,woultf, 
or shottfrf be. or should Ibe. 

Perfect Tens*. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 . I may or can have been. 1 . "We may or can have been 

% Thou rnayst or oanst 2. Ye or you may or can 

have beeo. have been. 

3. lie may or can have 3. They may or cau have 
been. been* 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singskr. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
should have been- or should have been- 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or ahoiddstbave" would, or should have 
beer. been. 

3. He«a%htv could, would, 8. They might, could,would, 
or should have been. or should have been- 



ETYMOLOGY. * v 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 If I be. 1« If we be. 

2- If thou be. 2. If ye or you be* 

3- If he be. 3. If they be- 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. " Plural. 

i. If I were- 1. If we were. 

2- If thou wert. 5. If ye or you were. 

3. If be were. 3. Iflhey were. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in genera], 
similar to the correspondent tense* of* the Indicative 
mood. See pages 84, 97, 98, and the noies under the 
nineteenth rule of Syntax. 

Infinitive Mood- 
Present Tense, To be. Perfect- To have been- 

Participles. 
Present- Being. Perfect. Been. 

Compound Perfect. Having been- 

Section 7. The Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their sim- 
ple form ; with observations on their peculiar nature and 
force- 

The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary 
Terbs, to have and to be, could not be conjugated through 
all the mood3 and tenses, without the help of other aux- 
iliary verbs ; namely, may, can, will, shall, s\u\ their 
variations. That auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, 
and unassisted by others, are of a very limited extent ; 
and that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they 
a3brd in conjugating the principal verbs, will clearly ap- 
pear to the scholar, by a distinct conjugation of each of 
them, uueombined with any other. They are exhibited 
for his inspection ; not to be committed to memory. 



90 



Sing. 1, I have. 
Plur, 1. We hare 



Sing, 1. 
Plur. 1 

Perfect, 



EtfGUSH GRAMMAR*" 
TO HAVE. 

... Present Tense* 
2. Thou hast. 
2. Ye or you have 

Imperfect Tense, 
2. Thou hadst. 
2. Ye or you had, 

I have iiad, &c 



I had. 
We had 



3. He hath * 
3. They have 

!. He had. 
\. Thfcy had. 



>r has. 



Present 



Participles. 
Having. 



Pluperfect* I had had, &e. 
Perfect, Had. 



TO BE, 

Present Tense. 

2. Thou art. 

2. Ye or you are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
2. Tliou wast. 



Sing. 1. I am. 
PZur. 1. We are. 



*Sfoi£. 1. I was. 

Plur. I. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 

Participles. 
Being. Perfect. 

SHALL. 

Present Tenss. 
% Thou shalt. 
2. Ye or you shall. 

Imperfect Teas*. 
2. Thou shouldst. 
2. Ye or you should 



3. He is. 
3. They are, 

3. He was, 
3. They w 



Present. 



Sins:. 1. I stall.* 
Plur. 1. We shall. 




$M£. 1. I should. 
Plur. 1. We should 



Been, 



3. He shaft 

3. They shall. 

3. He should. 
. 3. They should. 



Plur. 



FwUI. 
We w 

I Would. 



WILL. 

Present Ter.ss. 
2'. Thou wilt. 
2. Ye or you will. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Thou wouldst. 



1. We would. £. Ye ^r you wouid. 



3. He will. 
3. They will. 

3. Ke would. 
3. They would. 



* Shall is-nere properly ased in the present tense, having the 
same analogy to shwU that saw has to could r mcy to w^^, an* 



'i^ift^ v?qvM* 









ETYM0LOGT* 










MAY. 










Present Tense, 




Plur. 


1. 
1. 


I may. 
We may. 


2. Thou mayst. 
2. Ye or you may. 


3. He nay. 
3. They may, 


Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 
1. 


I mi£;ht. 
We migftt. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou mights^. 
2. Ye or you might. 

can. 


3. He might. 
3. They might, 


Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 
1. 


I can, 
We can. 


Present Tense. 
2. Thou canst. 
2. Ye or you can. 


S. He. can. 
3. Thejcaa,- 


Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 
1'. 


I could. 
We could. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou couldst. 
2. Ye or you could. 


3. JTe could. 
3. They conic 



TO DO. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. 1. I do. 2. Thou dost. 
Plur. 1. We do. 2. Ye or you do. 

Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou didst. 
2. Ye or you did. 



king. 
Plur. 



U I did. 
1. We- did. 

Present. Doinsc. 



3. He doth or does 
3, They do. 

3. He did. 
3. They did. 



ParticiDles. 



Perfect. Done. 



The verbs kave^ie^ jvill, and do, when they are uncon- 
nected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, 
are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs: as, "We have 
enough; 5 ' "I am grateful ;" u He mils it to be so ;'' 
"They do a& they please." In this view, they also have 
their auxiliaries : as, ; I shall have enough ;" "I will be 
grateful," &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will ap- 
pear from the following account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or Ihe lime of it, with 
greaferenergy and positiveness : as, "1 do speak truth;" 
4; I tfi'4j|spect him ;" 4t IIere am I, for thou didst call me." 
ThejSRe of great use in negative sentences : afc, "I do 
«<rtfear;" Ci I did not write-" They are almost univer- 
sally employed in asking questions : as, "Decs he leai 



$2 J2NGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Did he not write ?" They sometimes also supply the 
place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in 
the same, or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as, 
44 You attend not to your studies as he does ;" i. e, as he 
attends, &c. "I shall come if I can ; but if I do not, 
please to excuse me ;" i. e. if I come not. 

Let not euly expresses permission, hut entreating, ex- 
horting, commanding : as, <l Let us know the truth ;" ' 
"Let me die the death of the righteous ;" 'Let not thy 
heart be too much etated'with success ;" "Let thy in- 
clination submit to thy duty." 

May and might express th# possibility or liberty of doing 
a thing; can and could, the power: as, "It im*y rain;"' "I 
Inay write or read $" "H« might have improved more 
than he has;" "lit can write much better than he could 
last year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes 
necessity: as, '»We must speak the truth, whenever we 
do speak, and we must not prevaricate." 

fVUl, in the first person singular and plural, intimates 
resolution and promising; in the second and third person, 
oaly foretels ; as, "I will reward the good, and will pu- 
nish the wicked;" "We will remember benefits and be 
grateful ;" "Tnoii wilt, or he will, repent of that folly;" 
tk ¥ou or they will have a pleasant walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply fore- 
tels ; in the second a$d third persons, promises, com- 
mands, or threatens : as, "I shall go abroad ;" "We 
shall dine at home;" "Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit 
the land :" "Ye shall dojustice. and love mercy ;" "They 
shall account for their misconduct." The following pas- 
sage is not translated according to the distinct and pro- 
per meanings of the words shall and will : "Surely good- 
ness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; 
antft will dwell in the house of the Lord forever;" it 
ought to be, "Will follow me," and "I sftaZZ dwell." — 
The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, 
and cried out ; 4 I will be drowned, no kody shall help 
me;" made a sad rnisapplicatioa of these auxiliaries. * 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs 
will and shall, must be understood of explicative senten- 
ces j for whea the seateace is iaterrogatiye, just the re- 



ETYMOLOGY. 03 

veTse, for tne most part, takes place : thus, C; I shall go : 
you will go j" express event omy : bu r . '-. go V J 

imports intention; and "shall I ga?^ refe vvill 

of another. But, "He A-fttf« go," and ,o V* 

both imply VrMl ; expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the 
meaning of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some 
alteration ; as the learners will readily perceive by a few 
? examples : ; He shall proceed,*' "If he shall proceed;' 5 
"You shall consent," 4t Jf you shall consent." These 
auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, in the indica* 
tive and subjunctive moods, to convey the same mean- 
ing cf the auxiliary : as, "He mil not return," 'If he 
shall not return;" "He shall not return," "If he will not 
return."' 

JF<w7fr,prin*ari!y denotes inclination of will ; and should, 
obligation : but they both vary their import, and are ofte®. 
iffced to express simple event. 

Section 8. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs Active are called Regular, when they 
form their imperfect tease of the indicative 
mood, and their perfect participle, by adding 
to the verb ed, or d only when the verb ends m 
e : as, 

Present, Imperfect. Perf, Particip, 

I favour. I favoured* Favoured. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in thm 
following manner : 

TO LOVE. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. Hove. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. Ye or you love* 

3. He, she, or it, foveth, } mu . 

or loves. C 3 ' The ^ !ove < 



^ 4 ENGLISH GEAMMAft. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I. I loved.* 1. We loved. 

4; Thou lovedst. 2. Ye or you loved: 

3. He lov*d. 3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. !. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. -Ye or you have loved. 
3- He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved- 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

l- t l had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2- Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 

3. He had loved- 3. They had loved**]* 

First Future Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. I. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will Iov« 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future, Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shail hare loved. I. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved- 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved- 3. They will. have loved- 

Those tenses are^alled simple tenses,whieh are formed 
of the principal, without an auxiliary verb : as, "I love, 
I loved." The compound tenses are such as cannot be 
formed without an auxiliary verb : as, u l have loved ; I 
had loved; I shall or will love; I may love ; I may be 
loved ; I may have been loved ;" &c. These compounds 
are, however, to be considered as only different forms of 
the same verb. 



* In the present and imperfect tenses, we use a different form 
©f the verb, when we mean to express energy and positiveness : 
as, U I do love ; thou dost love ; he does love ; I did lov« ; tkon 
&id$t love ; he did l©ve.. v 



ETYMOLOGY. f5 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2- Love, or love ye or you, 
thou love. or do ye love. 

3. Let him love. 3. Let them love. 

Potential Mooq\ 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love, 
3* ffe may or can love. 3. They may or can *ov€% 

Imperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
should love- or should love- 

2. Thou mightst, couklsf, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, <Jt shouldst love. would or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could,would, 
or should love. or should love. 

^^Parfect Tens*. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may orcan have loved 

2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 
have loved. have loved. 

3. He may or can have 2. They may or can have 
loved. loved- 

Pluperfctt Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

3. I might, could.would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
Aould have loved. or should have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have 
have loved. loved. 

3. He miglit,could,would,or 3. They might, could, would, 

should have loved* or should have loved- 



^5 ENGLISH G&AMMAll. 

"Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, % raL 

1. If I love 1. If wc love- 

2. If thou love 2. If ye or you love- 

3. If be love. If they love. 

The remaining tenses Qf this mood, are, -in general, 
similar to the correspondent lenses or the indicative mood. 
See page 8 J, and page 97. . , . 4 1 

It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this 
place, that though only the conjunction if is affixed to the 
verb, any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive 
nMd, may, mth equal propriety, be occasion? lly annex- 
ed. The instance given is sufficient to explain the sub- 
ject : more would be tedious, and tend to embarrass the 
learner. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present. To love. Perfect To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. "'Having loved. 

The active verb may be conjugated differently, by 
adding its present or active participle to the auxiliary 
verb to be, through all its moods and tenses ; as, instead 
of "I teach, thou teaches t, he* teaches," &e. v*e rmv say, 
"I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching," &c. 
and instead of "I taught/' &c. W L was teach in g,"&c. and 
so on, through all the variation* of the auxiliary. This 
mode of conjugation, has, on particular occasions, a pecu- 
liar proprietv ; and contributes to the harmony and pre- 
cision of the language. T*ese forms of expression^ 
adapted to particular acts, not to general habits, or auc- 
tions of the mind. Tfeey are very frequently apphfcd to 
neuter verbs ; as, t4 I am musing;, he is sleeping. 

* As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, perforins the 
office of a verb, through all the moods^nd ien^s; ^f^ 
plies the idea of time, and governs the objective .d f e of nouns 
and pronouns, in the same manner as verba da ; is it not naf- 
fest, that it Is a species or form of the wb, and that it cannot ot 
properly considered as a distinct pail of speeeb [ 



ETYMOLOGY, 97 

Some grammarians apply, what is called the ccnjunc* 
live termination, to the persons of the principal verb, and 
to its auxiliaries, through all the tenses of the subjunctive 
mood. But this is certainly contrary to the practice of 
good writers. Johnson applies this termination to the 
present and perfect tenses only. Lowth restricts it en- 
tirely to the present tense ; and Priestley confines it to 
the present and imperfect tenses. This difference of 
opinion amongst grammarians of such eminence, may 
have contributed to that diversity of practice, so observa- 
ble in the use of the subjunctive mood. Uniformity in 
this point is highly desirable. It would materially assist 
both teachers and learners ; and would constitute a con- 
siderable improvement in our language. On this subject, 
we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth: and conceive we 
are fully warranted by his authority, and that of the most 
correct and elegant writers, in limiting the conjunctive 
termination of the principal verb, to the second and third 
, persons singular of the present tense. 

Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, re- 
specting the extent and variations of the subjunctive 
-mood; but a Yew of them have even doubted the exist- 
ence of such a mood in the English language. These' 
writers assert, that the verb has no variation from the 
indicative ; and that a conjunction added to the verb, 
gives it no title to become a distinct mood ; or, at most, 
no better than it would have, if any other particle were 
joined to it. To these observations it may be replied; 
ist. It is -evident, on inspection, that, in the subjunctive 
mood, the present tense of the principal verbs, the pre- 
sent and imperfect tenses of the verb to be, and the second 
and third persons, in both numbers, of the second future 
tense of all verbs:* require a variation from the forma 
which those tenses have in the indicative mood. So 
much difference in the form of the verb, would warrant 
a correspondent distinction of mood, though the remain- 
ing parts of the subjunctive were, in all respects, similar 
to those of the indicative- In other languages, a priaci- 

* We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a consti*. 
■pentpartof the verb to which -it relates: that the principal afcd 
ltfi auxiliary form but one verb.- 

Q 



*S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pie of this nature has been admitted, both in the conju- 
gation of verbs, and the declension of nouns. 2d. There 
appears to be as much propriety, in giving a conjunc- 
tion the power of assisting to form the subjunctive mood, 
as there is in allowing the particle to to have an effect in 
the formation of the infinitive mood.* 3d. A conjunction 
added to the verb, shows the manner of being, doing, or 
suffering, which other particles cannot show : they do not 
coalesce with the verb, and modify it, as conjunctions 
do. 4th. It may be said, u If contingency constitutes the 
subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a phrase, and 
not a conjunction, that determines this mood." But a 
little reflection will show, that the contingent sense lies 
in the meaning and force of the conjunction, expressed 
or understood, 

This subject may be farther illustrated, by the follow- 
ing observations. — Moods have a foundation in nature. 
They shew what is certain; what is possible; what is 
conditional ; what is commanded* They express also 
other Conceptions and volitions ; all signifying the man- 
ner of being, doing, or suffering. But as it would tend 
to obscure rather than elucidate the subject, if the mooda 
were particularly enumerated, grammarians have very 
properly given them such combinations and arrange- 
ments, as serve to explain the nature of this part of lan- 
guage, and to render the knowledge of it easily attainable. 
The grammars of some languages contain a greater 
number of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in 
different forms. The Greek and Roman tongues denote 
them, by particular variations in the verb itself. This 
form, however, was the effect of ingenuity and improve- 
ment : it is not essential to the nature of the subject . The 
inoods may be as effectually designated by a plurality of 
words, as by a change in the appearance of a single word ; 
because the same ideas are denoted, and the same end* 
accomplished, by either manner of expression. 

On this ground, the moods of the English verb, as well 
as the tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by 

*\ Conjunctions have an influence on the mood of the follow- 
in £ verb. ® r - Beatlie. 
Conjunctions kave sometimes a government of moods. 



ETYMOLOGT. 



w 



the principal verb itself, and partly by the assistance 
which that verb derives from other words. For further 
observations, relative to the views and sentiments here 
advanced, see pages 73, 74. 78—80- 

PASSIVE. 

Verbs Passive are called regular, when they 
form their perfect participle by the addition of 
i or ed, to the verb : as, from the verb "To 
love," is formed the passive, "I am loved, I 
was loved, I shall be loved/' &c. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the 
perfect participle to the auxiliary to be, through 
all its changes of number, person, mood, audi 
tease, n the following manner. 

TO BE LOFED- 
Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. K™*' • 

1. I am loved. *• We are loved. 

2 Thou art loved, 2. Ye or you are loved, 

1 He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Imptrfut Tense. 
Singular. ' " Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2, Ye or you have been loved, 
3.Hehathorhasbeenioved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfeet Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 had been lovei^ 1 . We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been lovefj. 

3. He had been loved. 3. Tbey had been loved.- 



*9° ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. PI uraL 

% I shall or will be loved. 1 . We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shall or wilt be 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

loved. l 0ved . 

3; He shall or will be loved 3. They shall or will be loved 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. Ye or you will have been 

loved. loved. 

3; He will have been loved. 3 ? They will have been JoveU 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. Let me be loved. L Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do 2. Be ye, or you loved or 

thoH be loved. do ye be loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be loved- 1. We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst he 2. Ye or you may or can be- 

loved, loved; 

3. He mayfor can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or I. We might, could, would; 

should be loved. or should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couklst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst, or sbouldst be would, or should be iov- 
loved. ed. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should be loved. or should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1> I may or can have been 1. We nay or can have been 
bvsch laved. 



ETTSiOLOGl: 



101 



( ,; a?a Plural. 

^ Thou mayst or eanst have 2. Ye or you mayor tea 

been loved. have been ioVe<L. 

3. He may or can have 3, They may or can have 

been loved* been loved, 



Pluperfect 
Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or I. 
should have been loved. 

2. Thou mights t, couldst 2. 
wouldst, or shouldst have 
been loved. 

S. He might, could, would, 3. 
cr. should have been loved. 



Tense. 
Plural* 

We might, could, would, 
or should have been loved. 

Ye or you might, could, 
would, or should have 
been loved. 

They might, could, would^ 
or should havebeen loved, 



Subjunctive Mood. 



Singular: 

1 . If I be loved.' 

2. If thou be loved; 

3. If he be loved. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 
1; If we beloved. 

2. If ye or you be loved* 

3. If they be loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If ye or you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general 
similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. 
See pages 84, 97, and the notes under the nineteenth 
rule of Syntax. 



Infinitive Mood. 



Present Tense 
To be loved. 



Perfect. 
To have been !o?ed> 



Present- 

Pei feet or Passive* 

Compound Perfect* 



Participles. 

Being loved- 

Loved. 

Having been lover!* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



f (he 




When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of 
principal verb, the auxiliary goes through all the varia 
tions of person and number, and the participle itself con- 
tinues invariably the same. When there are two or 
more auxiliaries joined to the participle, the first of them 
only is varied "according to person and number. The 
auxiliary must admits of no variation. 

The neuter verb is conjugated like the active ; but as 
it partakes somewhat of the nature of the passive, it ad- 
mits, in many instances, of the passive form, retaining 
still the neuter signification : as, Ci I am arrived^" "I was 
gone;" U I am grown." The auxiliary verb, a?n> was, in 
this case, precisely defines the time of the action or 
event, but does not change the nature of it; the passive 
form still expressing, not properly a passion , but only 
slate or condition of being. 

Section 9. Observations on Passive Verbs. 

Some writers on grammar assert, that there are w 
Passive Verbs in the English language, because we have 
no verbs of this kind with a peculiar termination, all of 
them being formed by the different tenses of ihe auxiliary 
to he, joined to the passive participle of the verb. This 
is, however, to mistake the true nature of the English verb ; 
and, to regulate it, not on the principles of our own* 
tongue, hut on those of foreign languages. The conju- 
gation, or th» variation, of the English verb, to answer 
all the purposes of verbs, is accomplished by the means 
of auxiliaries ; and if it be alleged that we have no pas* 
sive verbs, because we cannot exhibit them without hav- 
ing recourse to helping verbs, it may with equal truth be 
said, that we have no perfect, pluperfect* or future tense, in 
the indicative or subjunctive mood ; since these, as well 
as some other parts of . the verb active, are forme<" 
auxiliaries. 

Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an 
auxiliary to conjugate some of their tenses ; namely, the 
former, in the preterit of the optative and subjunctive 
moods; and the latter, in the perfect and pluperfect of 
the indicative, the perfect, pluperfect, and future, of the 
§#jua^U;t^n^9d,.aad the perfect ©f the infinitive. The 



ETYMOLOGY. 1G£~ 

deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an arrxilian' to 
conjugate several of their tenses. Thi3 statement abun- 
dantly proves that the conjugation of a verb in the learn- 
ed languages does not consist solely in varying the form 
of the original verb. It proves that these languages, 
like our own language, sometimes conjugate with an aux- 
iliary, and sometimes without it. There i3, indeed, a 
difference. What the learned languages require to be 
done, in some instances, the peculiar genius of our own 
tongue obliges us to do, in active verbs principally, and 
in passive one3, universally. In short, the variation of 
the verb, in Greek and Latin, is generally accomplished 
by prefixes, or terminations, added to the verb itself; in 
English, by the addition of auxiliaries. 

The English tongue is, in many respects, materially 
different from the learned languages. It is, therefore, 
very possible to be mistaken ourselves, and to mislead 
and perplex others, by an undistinguishing attachment 
to the principles and arrangement of the Greek and Latin 
grammarians. Much of thr confusion and perplexity, 
which we meet with in the writings of some English 
grammarians, on the subject of verbs, moods, and conju- 
gations, has arisen from the misapplication of names. We 
are apt to think, that the old names must always be at- 
tached to the identical forms and things to which they 
were anciently attached. But if we rectify this mistake, 
and properly adjust the names to the peculiar forms and 
nature of the things in our own language, we shall be 
clear and consistent in our ideas ; and. consequently, 
better able to represent them intelligibly to those whom 
ive wish to informv 

The observations which we have made under this Head,' 
and on the subject of the moods in another place, will jaot 
apply to the declension and cases of nouns, so rs to require 
us to adopt names and divisions similar to those of the 
Greek and Latin languages: for we should then have more 
cases than there are prepositions in connexion with the ar- 
ticle and noun : and after all, it would be a useless, as well 
as an unwieldy apparatus; since every English preposition 
points to, and governs, but one case, namely the objective ; 
which is also true with respect to our <rov erning verbs and 
{wrticiples. But the conjugation of an English verb in foroa* 



t04 ENGLISH GRAMMAR*' 

&rough all its moods and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, 
so far from being useless or intricate, is a beautiful and 
regular display of it, and indispensably necessary to the 
language. 

Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same' 
ground that the voices 5 moods, and tenses,are admitted inii* 
the English tongue, in the forms for which we haV-<j »*' on- 
tended, we should also admit the dual number; t> ; e p au | 
post future tenses, the middle voice, and all $* moods and 
tense, wiiich are to be found in Greek m>d Laiia. But 
this objection, though urged with m^'n reliance on its 
weight, is not well founded. If U'»A-? arrangement of the 
moods, tenses, &c, which vre. have adopted, is suited to 
the idiom of oar tongue ; ; and the principle, on which 
they are adopted, is extended as far as use and conve- 
nience require; -where is the impropriety, in arresting 
our progress, and fixing our forms -at the point of utility ? 
A principle thay be warrantable adopted, and carried to 
a precise convenient extent, without subjecting its 
Supporters to i\\e charge of inconsistency, for not pursu- 
ing it beyond the line of use and propriety. 

The importance of giving the ingenious student clear • 
and just ideas of the nature of our verb3, moods, and 
tenses, will apologize for the extent of the author's re- 
marks on these subjects, both here and elsewhere, and 
for his solicitude to simplify and explain them. — He thinks 
it has been proved, that the idiom of our tongue demands 
the arrangement he has given to the English verb; and 
that though the learned languages, with respect to voices, 
moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed: 
from the English tongue, yet, in some respects, they are 
so similar to it, as to warrant the principle which he has? 
adopted. See pages 73— 74. 7a— &(K 97^-09, 

Section 10. Of Irregular Verbs-. 

Irregular Verbs are those which do »t)t 
form their imperfect tense, and their perfect 
participle, by the addition of d or e4 to tfc* 
T&erb : a% 



ETYMOLOGY. 



1*5* 



Present. Imperfect.* Perfect Part; 

I begin, I began, begun. 

I know, I knew, known. 

Irregular Verbs arc of various sorts. 

1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and 
perfect participle, the same : as* 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect part. 

Cost, cost, cost, 

Put, put, put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect par- 
ticiple, the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Abide, abode, abode. 

Sell, sold, sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect par- 
ticiple, different : as, 

Present. . Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Arise, arose, arisen. 

Blow, blew, blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as> "feed," 
"fed; leave, left :* others by the termination en; as, "fall,, 
fell, fallen :" others by the termination ght ; as, "buy, 
bought ; teach, taught, 5 ' &c. 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is pre- 
sumed, be found both comprehensive and accurate. 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part 
Abide, abode, abode. 
Am, was, been. 
Arise, arose, arisen. 
Awake, awoke, &, awaked. 
Bear, to bring forth .bare, bora. 
Bear, to carry, bore, borne. 
33eat, beat, beaten, beat- 
Begin, began, begun. 
Bend, bent, bent. 
Bereave, bereft, r. bereft, r. 
I Beseech, besought, besought 
Bid, bid, bade, bidden, bid.. 



Joe 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



fteseatf 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Tttt. Firf* 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, biti 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought^ 


brought. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, ft. 


caught, R; 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, thidL 


Choose, 


chose r 


chosen. 


Cleave, to stick 
or adhere, 


V REGULAR. 




Cleave, to split, 


clove, or cleft, 


deft, cIov«n. 


Cling, 


clung, 


dung. 


Clothe^ 


clothed, 


clad, a; 


Come* 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Crow, 


crew, s. 


crowed. 


Creep^ 


crept, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, to venture. 


dursl. 


dareA 


Dare, r. to challenge 




Deal, 


dealt, r. 


dealt, jbu 


Dig, 


dug, ft. 


dug, ft. 


Do, 


did. 


done. 


Draw, 


drew. 


drawn. 


Drive, 


drove. 


driven. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Dwell* 


dwelt, ft. 


xlwelt/iw 


Eat, 


eat, or ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Peed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flw*& 


flung,* 



fresifeh 

Fly, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Hear, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lay, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Lend t 

Let, 

Lie, to 4ie doivn t 

Load, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Pay, 

Put, 

Read, 

Rend, 

* Go7«t is nearly obsolete, 
good use. 



XTYMOIiOGY. 


i 


Imperfect, 
flew, 


Ferf. or Paw. Part 
flown, 


forgot, 
forsook, 


forgotten, forgot 


forsaken. 


froze, 


frozen. 


got, 


got.* 


gilt, r. 


gilt, r. 


girt. r. 


girt, r, 


gave, 


given. 


went, 


gone. 


graved, 


graven. %* 


ground, 


ground. 


grew, 
had, 


grown, 
had. 


hung, R* 


hung, R. 


heard, 


heard. 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


hid, 


hidden, hid, 


hit, 


hit. 


held, 


held. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


kept. 


kept. 


knit, r* 


knit, r. 


knew, 


known. 


laded, 


ladeu. 


laid, 


laid. 


led, 


led. 


left, 


left. 


lent, 


lent. 


let, 


let. 


lay, 


lain. 


loaded, 


laden, e. 


lost, 


lost. 


m&le, 


made. 


met, 


met. 


mowed, 


mown, r 


paid, 


paid. 


put, 


put. 


read, 


read* 


rent, 


rent. 



10? 



Its coxnp&und forgotten is a*8I i 



1 08 



SK&U8H GRAMMAR. 



£ Ppeseiat 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw* 

Say, 

Bee, 

Seek, 

SeiJ, • 

Send, 

Shake, 
Shape, 
Shave, 
Shear^ 
Shed, 
Shine, 
Show, 
Shoe, 
Shoot, 
Shrink, 
Shred, 
Shut, 
'Sing, 
Sink, 
Sit, 
Slay, 
Sleep, 
Slide, 
Sling, 
Slink, 
Slit, 
Smite, 
Sow, 
Speak, 
Sjced, 
Spend, 
"Spill, 



Imperfect 


Perf. or F aw.. fart. 


rid, 


rid. 


rode, 


rode, ridden.* 


rung, rang. 


rung. 


rose, 


risen. 


rived. 


riven. 


ran, 


run. 


sawed 5 


sawn> r. 


said, 


said, 


saw, 


seen. 


sought, 


sought. 


sold, 


sold. 


sent, 


sent 


set, 


set. 


shook, 


shaken. 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen 


shaved, 


shaven, r. 


sheared, 


shorn. 


shed, 


shed. 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


showed, 


shown. 


shod, 


shod* 


shot, 


shot. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


shred, 


shred. - 


shut, 


shut. 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


sunk, sank* 


sunk. 


sat, 


sat. 


slew, 


slain. 


slept, 


slept. 


slid, 


slidden. 


slung* 


slung. 


slunk, 


slunk. 


slit. a* 


slit, or slittec!, 


smote, 


smitte*. 


sowed* 


sown, r. 


spoke, 


spoken. 


sped, 


sped. 


spent, 


spent. 


spilt, r. 


spilt, it 


JUddeti is nearly obsolete. < 



■ETYMOLOGY. 



109 



Present 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow, or strew. 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teaeb, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throws 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave* 

Weep, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 



Imperfect. 
spun, 
spit, spat, 
split, 



Perf. or Pass. Parti 

spun. 

spit, spitten.* 

split, 



spread, 


spread, 


sprung, sprang. 


sprung. 


stood, 


stood. 


ftole, 


stolen. 


stuck, 


stuck, 


stung, 


stung, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


strode, or strid, 


stridden. 


struck, 


struck or stricken. 


strung, 


strung. 


strove, 


striven. 




. { strown. strowed. 


strowed.or strewed, < " streA v e d. 


swore, 


sworn. 


swet, b. 


swet, r. 


swelled, 


swolien,iu 


swum, swpm, 


swum. 


swung, 


swung. 


took, 


taken. 


taught, 


taught. 


tore, 


torn. 


told, 


told. 


thought, 


thought. 


throve, r. 


thriven. 


threw, 


thrown. 


thrust, 


thrust, 


trod, 


trodden. 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


wore, 


worn. 


wove, 


woven. 


wept, 


wept. 


won, 


won. 


wound, 


wound. 


wrought, 


wrought or worked, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


wrote, 


written. 



Spilten is nearly obsolete. 
10 



1 1(3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found 
to be conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and 
those which admit of the regular form are marked with 
an r. There is a preference to be given to some of these, 
which custom and judgment must determine. Those pre- 
terits and participles which are first mentioned in the list, 
seem to be most eligible. The Compiler has not inserted 
such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or 
discourse, and which are improperly terminated by £, in- 
stead of ed\ as, learnt, spelt, spilt, &e. These should be 
avoided in every sort of composition. It is, however, 
proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into U are 
unexceptionable : and others, the only established forms 
of expression : as crept, gilt, &c. ; and lost, felt, slept, &<$• 
These allowable and necessary contractions must there- 
fore be carefully distinguished by the learner, from those 
that are exceptionable. The words which are obsolete 
have also been omitted, that the learner might not be in- 
duced to mistake them for words in present use. Such 
are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, 
bounden, &c ; and swang, wrang, slank, strawed, gat, 
brake, tare, ware, &c, 

Section 11. Of Defective Verbs ; and of the different 
ways in which verbs are conjugated. 

Defective Verbs are those which are used 
only in some of their moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these. 
Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part 

Can, could, < 

May, might, 

Shall, should, ~— 

Will, would, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, — 

quoth, 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and 
past signification, appears from the following sentences: 
"I irjnsi own that lam to blame;" "He must have been 
mistaken ;" "Speaking things which they ought not;" 
•••These ought ye to have done-' 7 



ETYMOLOGY. Ill 

In most languages there are some verbs which are de- 
fective with respect to persons. These are denominated 
impersonal verbs. They are used only in the third per- 
son, because they refer to a subject peculiarly appropria- 
ted to that person; as, "It rains, it snows, it hails, it 
lightens, it thunders." But as the word impersonal im- 
plies a total absence of persons, it is improperly applied 
to those verbs which have a person : and hence it it 
manifest, that there is no such thing in English, nor in- 
deed, in any language, as a sort of verbs really impersonal. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, 
regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken to- 
gether, is about 4S00. The number of irregular verb?, 
the defective included, is about 177.* 

Some grammarians have thought that the English verbs, 
as well as those of the Greek, Latin, French, and other 
languages, might be classed into several conjugations ; 
and that the three different terminations of the participle 
might be the distinguishing characteristics. They have 
accordingly proposed three conjugations ; namely, the 
first to consist of verbs, the participles of which end in 
cd, or its contraction t ; the second, of tbose ending in 
ght -; and the third of those in en. But as the verbs of 
the first conjugation w T ould so greatly exceed in number 
those of both the others, as may be seen by the preced- 
ing account of- them ; and as those of the third conjuga- 
tion are so various in their form, and incapable of being 
reduced to one plain rule ; it seems better in practice, as 
Dr. Lowth justly observes, to consider the first in cd as 
the only regular form, and the other as deviations from 
it ;' after the example of the Saxon and German gramma- 
rians. 

Before we close the account of the verb?, it may afford 
instruction to the learners, to be informed, more particu- 
larly than they have been, that different nations have 
made use of different contrivances for marking tbe tenses 
and moods of their verbs. The Greeks and Latin3 dis- 
tinguish them, as well as the cases of their nouns, adjec- 
tives, and participles, by varying the termination, or 

* The whole number of w&jds, in the English language. ,\b 
about thirty-five Jhousan<J, 




112 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 

otherwise changing the form, of the word ; retaining* 
however, those radical letters, which prove the inflection 
to be of the same kindred with its root* The modern 
tongues, particularly the English, abound in auxiliary- 
words, which vary the meaning of the noun, or the verb, 
without requiring any considerable varieties of inflection. 
Thus, f do Icve, 1 did love \ I have loved, I had loved, I shall 
love, have the same import with amo, amaham, am<tvi> 
amaveram, amaho. It is obvious, that a language, like 
the Greek and Latin, which can thus comprehend in one 
word the meaning of two or three words, must have some 
advantages over those which are not so comprehensive* 
Perhaps, indeed, it may not be more perspicuous ; but, in 
the arrangement of w ords, and consequently in harmony 
and energy, as well as in conciseness, it may be much 
more elegant, 

CHAPTER Y1I= 

Of Adverbs. 

An "Adverb is a part of speech joined to as 
yerb, an adjective, and sometimes to another 
adverb, to express some quality or circum- 
stance respecting it : as, "He reads well ;" "A 
truly good man ft "He writes very correctly." 
Some adverbs are compared thus ; "Soon, 
sooner, soonest;"" "often, oftener, oftenest." 
Those ending; in Z#, are compared by more and 
most ; as, "Wisely, more wisely, tnost wisely.^ 
Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to ex- 
press compendiously in one word, what must otherwise 
have required two or more : as, "He acted wisely," for, 
he acted with wisdom ; "prudently ,? r for, with prudence ; 
"He did it here," for, he did it in this place ; "exceeding- 
ly," for, to a great degree ; "often and seldom," for many, 
and for few times ; "very," for, in an eminent degree, fee- 
There are many words in the English language that 
are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as ad- 
verbs ; as, "More men than women were there \V or, "I 



ETYMOLOGY. 113 

am more diligent than he." In (he former sentence 
vwre is evidently an adjective, and in (he latter, an atU 
verb. There are others that are sometimes used as sub- 
stantives, and sometimes as adverbs: as, "To-day's lesson 
is longer than yesterday's;"' here to-day and yesterday 
j.re substantives, because they are words that make sense 
of themselves, and admit hesides of a genitive case : but 
in Die phrase, "He came home yesterday, and sets out 
In to-day, 55 they are adverbs of time ; because they 
the question when. The adverb much is used ' 
as ail three : as, ''Where much is given, much is requir- 
ed;" "3Ta:di money has been expended ;" "It is much 
er to go than to stay.-' In the first of these senten- 
ces, much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjec- 
tive ; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but 
the ..: determine what -they are. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to 
certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, 
Order, Place* Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, 
AGrmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Ot number : as, "Once, twice, thrice," &fc. 

2. Ot ardor: as, "First, secondly, thirdly fourthly 
(y, lastly, finally, 55 &c.\ 

3. Of place : as, "Here, there, where, elsewhere, any- 
where, somewhere, nowhere, heroin, whither, hither, thi- 
ther, upward, downward, forward, 'backward, whence, , 
hence, thence, whithersoever, 5 ' &c. 

4. Of fane. 

Of time present . as, "Now, to-day, 55 &c. 

Ot time past: as, 4t Already, before, lately. yestenLy, 
heretofore, hitherto, Ions since, long ago, 55 &c. 

Of time to come ; as. "To morrow, not vet, hereafter, 
henceiorlb, henceforward, by and by, intlautly, present! v, 
immediately, straightkvays," &c. 

Otiime indefinite : as, « Oft, often, oft-times, often- 
times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weeklv, monthly, 
yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again,' 5 &c. 

5 Of quantity - as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how- 
much, how great, enough, abundantly, 55 &c. 

6 Of iynw or quality : as, "Wisely, foolishly . jiwk 



P'4 15 ENGLISH ftRAMftAR. 

Jy, unjustly, quickly, slowly, 5 ' &c. Abverbs of quality 
are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally 
formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or 
participle, or changing le inte/i/ ; asj "Bad, badly ; cheer- 
ful, cheerfully; able, ably ;~ admirable, admirably."' 

7. Of doubt : as, "Perhaps, perad venture* possibly, 
perchance." 

8. Of affirmation : as, 'Verily, truty, undoubtedly, 
doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really ,"&c.- 

9. Of negation : as, "Nay, no, not, by no means, not 
at all, in no wise," &c. 

10. Oiinitwogation : as, "Hew, why, wherefore, -whe- 
ther," &c. 

11. Of comparison: as, "More, most, better, best,' > 
worse, worst, Jess, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are ma- 
ny which are formed by a combination of several of the 
prepositions with the adverbs of place here, there, and 
where ; as, "Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto,., 
w hereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, there- 
with, wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, 
tf. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or 
hereon, thereupon or tftereon-,whereupon or whereop, &€. 
Except therefore, these are seldom used. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change,, 
but becomes an adverb merely by its application ; as •. 
when we say, "he rides about ;" "he was near felling ;" 
u fcut do not after lay the blame on me." 

Inhere are also some adverbs, which' are composed of 
nouns, and the letter a used instead of at, on, Sic. as,^ 
"Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep r aboard; ashore, 
abed, aground, afloatf &c 

The words when and where, and all others of the same 
nature, such as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c. 
may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because 
they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunc- 
tions : of conjunctions, as they Conjoin sentences ; of 
adverbs^ as they denote the attributes either of time or of 
wlace. . 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the* 



ETYMOLOGY. ] \& 

word therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining 
sentences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. 
When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a con- 
junction : as, "He is good, therefore he is happy." The 
same observation may be extended to the words conse- 
quently, accordingly and the like. When these are sub- 
joined to and, or joined to if, since, &c they are adverbs, 
the connexion being made without their help : when they 
appear single, and unsupported by any other connective, 
they may be called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what ne- 
cessity there is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provi- 
ded with tenses, to show that circumstance. The an- 
swer is, though tenses may lie sufficient to denote the 
greater distinctions of time, yet, to denote them all by 
the tenses would be a perplexity without end. What av 
variety of forms must be given to the verb, to denote* 
yesterday, to-day , to-morrow, formerly, lately, just now^ 
now, immediately , presently , soon, liereafter, &c. It was 
this consideration that made the adverbs of time neces- 
sary, over and above the tenses. 

CHAPTER Villi- 

Of Prepositions. 

Prepositions serve to connect words with* 
one another, and to show the relation between 
them. They are, for the most part, put before 
noting and pronouns, as, "He went from Lon- 
don to York;" "She is above disguise;- 7 
"They are instructed by him." 

The following is a list of the priacipal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above- 


at 


off 


to 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


for 


without . 


between' 


up 


among 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


with 


under 


from 


before 


about 


in 


through 


beyond 


behind 


against 



Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition; 
a&> to uphold,. to invest, to overlook: and this compost 




tiW ENGLISH CRAM5IA&> 

lion sometimes gives a new sense to the verb : as, to mi 
derstand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the 
preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and 
separately from it, like an adverb, in which situation 
it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a 
new meaning; and may still be considered as belonging 
to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to cast, is to throw ; 
but io cast up, or to compute, an account, is quite a different 
thing : thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So 
that the meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the 
phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain s 
syllables employed, which grammarians have called in- 
separable prepositions : as, £?, con, mis, &c. in bedeck,^ 
conjoin, mistake: but as they are not words of any kind, 
they cannot properly be called a species of preposition. 
One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express 
those relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly 
marked by cases, or the different endings of nouns. See 
page 52. The necessity and use of them will appear 
from the following examples. If we say, "be writes a 
pen,"' 1 -they ran the river," '-the tower fell the Greeks,"' 
"Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," there is observable 9 , 
in each of these expressions, either a total want of con- 
nexion, or such a connexion as produces falsehood or 
nonsense i and it is evident, that, before they can be 
turned into sense;, the vacancy must be filled up by some 
connecting word : as thus; "He writes with a pen;" '"'they 
ran towards the river;" "the tower fell upon the Greeks;" '* 
"LarfSbeth is -over against Westminster-abbey." We see 
by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary 
to connect those words, which in their signification are not* 
naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, 
seem to have denoted relations of place ; but they are 
now used figuratively to express other relations. For 
example, as they who are above have in several respects 
the advantage of such as are below^ prepositions express- 
ing high and low places are used for superiority and in- 
feriority in general: as, a He is above disguise ;" "we 
serve under a good master;" "he rules over a willing peo- 
ple;" "we should do noihingbeneath our character," 



ETYMOLOGT. 11 T 

The importance of the prepositions will be further per- 
ceived by the explanation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or conse- 
quence, and other relations connected with these : as, 
''The house of my friend ;" that is> "the house belonging* 
to my friend ;" "He died of a. fever ;" that is, "in con- 
sequence of a fever." 5 

To\ or untOy is opposed to from ; as, "He rode from 
Salisbury to Winchester." 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or cir- 
cumstance, &c. as, "He loves her for (that is, on account 
of) her amiable qualities.' 5 

.By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent* 
means, &c. as, "He was kitted by a fall :" lhat is, "a fall 
was the cause of his being killed ;" "This house war 
built by him ;" that is, "he was the builder of it. 5 ' 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c. as,* 
"We will go with you V' "They are on good terms with- 

each other." With also alludes to the instrument or 

means ; as, "He was cut with a knife. " 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being- 
or acting, &c. as, "He was born in (that is, during) the 
year 1720 .;" "He dwells in the city ;" 'She lives in af- 
fluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind 
as, "He retired into the country ]V 'Copper is converted 
i'Uo brass." 

Within relates to something comprehended in anfi^j 
place or time : as, "They are within the house ;" "He 
began and finished his work within the limited time." 

The signification of without is opposite to that of with- 
in: as, "She stands without the gate:" But it is more fre- 
quently opposed to with; as, "You may go without me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions 
will be readily understood, without a particular detail i>f 
them. We shall therefore conclude this head with ob- 
serving, that there is a peculiar propriety in distinguish- 
ing the use of the prepositions by and mih ; which is ob- 
servable in sentences like the following : 'He walks with 
ia staff by moonlight;'" "He was taken by .stratagem, and 
^killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, 
*nd say, "he walks by a staff with moonlight,' 5 "he wa*j 



m 



118 ENGLISH GRAMSJAK. 

taken rvith stratagem, and killed by a sword;" and it 
will appear, that they differ in signification more than- 
one, at first view, would be apt to imagine* 

Some of the prepositions have the appearanee and ef- 
fect of conjunctions ; as "After their prisons were thrown 
open,-', &c. "Before I die ; 7 ' "They made haste to be 
prepared against their friends arrived : ,? but if the noun 
iiine^ w T hieh is understood, be added, they will lose their 
conjunctive form; as, "After [the time when] their pri- 
sons, 5 ' &c. 

The prepositions after, before, above y beneath , and seve- 
ral others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be 
so considered : as, "They had their reward soon after" 
"He died not long before ;*' "He dwells above;" but if the 
nouns time and place be added, they will lose their ad- 
Terbial form ; as, "He died not long before that time? 3; &@* 

CHAPTER fi f 

Of Conjunctions: 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences ; -so as, out of 
two or more sentences, to make but one. It 
sometimes connects only words. 
{ Conjunctions are principally divided into 
Jjlwo sorts, the Copulative and the Disjunctive, 

The Conjunction Copulative serves to con* 
nect or to continue a sentence, by expressing an 
addition, a supposition, a cause, &e. : as, "He 
and his brother reside in London p "I will go 
if he will accompany me :" "You. are happy, 
because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive serves not only 
to connect and continue the sentence, but also 
to express opposition of meaning in different 
degrees : as, "Though he was frequently re- 
proved, yefWe did not reform ;" "They came 
with her,* ow*tbey went away without he»." 



ETYMOLOGY. 119 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 

The Copulative* And, if, that, both, then, since, for, 
because, therefore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. But or, not, as, than, lest, though, 
unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a con- 
junction and as an adverb ; and sometimes as a preposi- 
tion. "I rest then upon this argument ;" then is here a 
conjunction : in the following phrase, it is an adverb ; 
"He arrived then, and not before. 5 "1 submitted ; far it 
was vain to resist :" in this sentence, for is a con- 
junction; in the next it is a preposition: "He con- 
tended for vietory only.'" In the first of the following 
sentences, since is a conjunction; in the second, it is a 
preposition ; and in the third, an adverb : "Suice we must 
part, let us do it peaceably :" "I have not seen him since 
that time :" "Our friendship commenced long since-" 

Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to 
connect sentences : as, "Blessed is the man who feareth 
the Lord : and keepeth his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pro- 
noun and a connective. Nay the union by relatives is 
rather closer, than thnt by mere conjunctions. The lat- 
ter may form two o? more sentences into one ; but, by the 
former, several sentences may incorporate in one and 
the same clause of a sentence. Thus, ''thou seest a man, 
and he is called P> ter : " is a sentence consisting of two 
distinct clauses, united by the copulative and : but, 
•"the man whom thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence 
of one clause, and not less comprehensive than the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they ap- 
pear to unite only words ; as in the fei lowing; instances : 
"Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences;" * c YV.is- 
dom or folly governs us** 1 Each of these forms of expres- 
sion contains two sentences, namely; "Duty forbids vi- 
cious indulgences; interest forbids vicious indulgences ; ?i 
"Wisdom governs us, or folij' governs us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect 
sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely con- 
nects words, not sentences ; as, l The king and queen are 
an amiable pair;* where the affirmation cannot P?fer to 
each ; it beiug absurd to say, that the king or the queen 



120 ENGXTSH GRAMMAR; 

*n]y is an amiable pair. So in the instances, "twowid 
two are four ; *'the fifth and sixth volumes will complete 
the set of books." Prepositions also, as before observed, 
connect words ; but they do it to show the relation which 
the connected words have to each other : conjunctions, 
when they unite words only, are designed to show the 
relations, which those words, so united, have to other 
parts of the sentence. 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases 
appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never 
employed in joining the members of a sentence; so there 
are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, 
which are never employed in the former ; and some that 
are equally adapted to both these purposes : as, again, 
further, besides. Sec. of the first kind ; than, lest, unless, 
that, so that, &c. of the second ; and but, and, for, there- 
fore, &c. of the Jast. 

We shall close this chapter with a few observations on 
the peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; <a 
subject which will, doubtless, give pleasure to the inge- 
-iiious student, and expand his views of the importance 
of his grammatical studies. 

"Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunc- 
tions. The former make speech more concise ; the latter 
make it more explicit. Relatives comprehend the mean- 
ing of a pronoun and conjunction copulative : conjunctions, 
while they couple sentences, may also express opposition, 
inference, and many other relations and dependences. 

Till men began to think in a trail*, and to carry their 
reasonings to a considerable length, it 13 not probable that 
they would make much use of conjunctions, or of any 
other connectives. Ignorant people, and children, gene- 
rally speak in short and separate sentences. The same 
thing is true of barbarous nations ■ and hence uncultivated 
languages are not well supplied with connecting particles. 
The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever ap- 
peared in the world ; and their language, accordingly, 
abounds more than any other in connectives. 

, Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of 
writing. In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is 
required, and every appearance of formality avoided* 
jaany of them woald have a bad effect. In passionate 



ETTMOLOGT. 121 

language toe, it may be proper to omit their, : because it 
is the nature of violent passion, to speak rather in dis- 
jointed sentences, than in the way of inference and ar- 
gument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs of Solo- 
mon, have few connectives; because they instruct, not 
by reasoning, but in detached observations. And narra- 
tive will sometimes appear very graceful, when the cir- 
cumstances are plainly told, with scarcely any other 
conjunction than the simple copulative and : which is 
frequently the case in the historical parts of scripture. 
When narration is full of images or events, the omission 
of connectives may, by crowding the principal words 
upon one another, give a sort of picture of hurry and 
tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of description. But 
when facts are to be traced down through their conse- 
quences, or upwards to their causes ; when the compli- 
cated designs of mankind are to be laid open, or conjec- 
jectures offered concerning them ; when the historian ar- 
gues either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to 
state the pleas and principles of contending parlies; 
there will be occasion for every species of connective, 
as much as in philosophy itself. In fact, it i3 in argu- 
ment, investigation, and science, that this part of speech 
is peculiarly $nd indispensably nocessary.'" 

chapter x. 

Of Interjections. 

Interjections are words thrown in between 
the parts of a sentence, to express the passions 
er emotions of the speaker : as, -"Oh ! I have 
alienated my friend ; alas ! I fear for life :" 
"O virtue ! how amiable thou art IV 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other 
languages, are comprised within a small compass. They 
are of different sorts, according to the different passion* 
which they serve to express. Those which intimate ear- 
nestness or grief, m-e, O ! oh! ch! alas! Such 33 are 
express! ve of contempt, are pish ! tush ! of wonder, licigh t 
. really! strange! of calling, hem! ho! soho ! of aversion 
11 



Igo ENGlilSH GRAMMAR. 

or disgust,/** ! fu 1 away .' of a call of the at .tent^M* ! 
behold! hark! of requesting silence, hush ! Inst! ot salu- 
tation, welcome! hail! all hail\ Besides these, several 
others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be 
enumerated; but, in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, u 
is unnecessary to expatiate on such expressions ot pas- 
sion, as are scarcely worthy of being ranked am^ng the 
branches of artificial language.-S^ the Octavo Grammar* 

CHAPTER XI. 

Of Derivation. 

Section 1- Of the various ways in which words arc dc< 
rived from one another. 

Having treated of the different sorts of words and 
their various modifications, which is the first part of My- 
mology, it is now proper to explain the methods oy ^hich 
©He word is derived from another. ( . 

Words are derived from one another in various ways , 

viz. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. _ 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, am. 
sometimes from adverbs. 

3 Adjectives are derived from substantives. 
% Substantives are derived from adjectives. 
5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 
1 Substantives are derived from verbs : as, from "to. 
love," comes "lover ;" from "to visit, visiter ;' from "to 

^Tn^SSt'stances, and in many others it is 
dimcu to determine vvhetber the verb was deduced frmx. 
the noun, or the noun from the verb, y,z. Lo ve, to lo ve 
hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep, walk, to 
walk; ride, to ride; act, to act,' &c. 

2 Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs ; a ? from the ,nb. antive mlt, 
comes "to salt;" from the adjective nonn, '° « a n1 ; 
and from the adverb forward, "forward .^gg 
thevare formed -by lengthening the vowel, sohening 
thfconsoS; |fe "grass, to graze f> sometnncs by | 



in-YIUOLOGY; 12* 

adding en ; as, from 'length, to lengthen*" especially 
to adjectives : as, from 'short, to shorten ; bright, to 
brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the fol- 
lowing manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived 
from substantives by adding y : as. from 'Health, heal- 
thy ,- wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty," <£c, 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing 
13 made, are derived from substantives by adding c n : as; 
from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden ; wool, woolen," (£c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from sub- 
stantives, by adding/wZ : as-, from u Joy, joyful ; sin, sin- 
ful ; fruit, fruitful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of 
diminution, are derived from substantives, by adding 
some: as, from- -"Light, lightsome; trouble, troublesome; 
toiK toilsome," &e. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from substan- 
tives, by adding less : as, from "Worth, worthless ;" from 
"care, careless ; joy, joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from sub- 
stantives, by adding ly : as, from "Man, manly ; earth* 
earthly ; court, courtly," &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or 
from substantives, by adding ish to them ; which termi* 
nation, when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or 
lessening the quality : as, 4i White, whitish ;" i. e. some- 
what white. When added to substantives, it signifies 
similitude or tendency to a character : as, "Child, child- 
ish ; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs* 
by adding the termination able ; and those adjectives 
signify capacity : as, "Answer, answerable ; to change* 
changeable." 

A. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes 
by adding the termination ness : as, "White, whiteness ; 
swift, swiftness :" sometimes by adding th or t, and mak- 
ing a small change in some of the letters : as, "Long, 
length ; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by 
adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the seme 



\Zt ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

quality as the adjectives from which ihey are derived : 
as, from "base," romes ^basely 5" from "slow, slowly i" r 
from * able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from 
one another, that, it would be extremely difficult, and 
nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive 
words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form 
much the greater number. A few more instances only 
can be given here. 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives,, 
by adding the terminations kood or head, ship, ery, wick, 
rid:, dom, ian, merit, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify 
character or qualities : as, "Manhood, knighthood, false- 
hood," &c. 

Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify office, 
employment, state, or condition : as, "Lordship, steward- 
ship, partnership," &c. Some substantives in skip, are 
derived from adjectives : as, "Hard, hardship," &c. 

Substantives which end in enj, signify action or habit : 
as, a Slaverjr, foolery, prudery," &c. Some substantives 
of this sort come from adjectives; as, "Brave, bravery," 
<Lc. 

Substantives ending in wick,rick, and dom, denote do- 
minion, jurisdiction, or condition : as, "Bailiwick, bish- 
opries, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify 
profession ; as, ''Physician, musician," &c. Those that 
end in menl and age, come generally from the French, 
imd commonly signify the act or habit : as, "Command- 
ment, usage." 

Some substantives ending in ard, are derived irom 
verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit : as, 
"Drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard." 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but 
these are not many. They are formed by adding the 
terminations, kin, ling, ing, cck, el, and the like: as, 
"Lamb, lambkin 5 goose, gosling ; duck, duckling : lull, 
hillock ; cock, cockerel," <&c. ' 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing Eng- 
lish words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other 
&nguageft, must be omitted; as the English sch.9Iar.13 nam 



ETYMOLOGT. US 

supposed to be acquainted with these languages. The 
best English dictionaries will, however, furnish some in- 
formation oil this head, to those who are desirous of ob- 
taining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his "Diver- 
sions of Purtey," has given an ingenious account of the 
derivation and meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunc- 
tions, and prepositions. 

It is highly probable that the system of this acute 
grammarian, is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, pre- 
posiiionsj and conjunctions, are corruptions or abbrevia- 
tions of other parts of speech. But as many of them are 
derived from obsolete words in our own language, or from 
words in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which 
is, therefore, either obscure, or generally unknown ; as 
the system of this very able etymologist is not universally 
admitted ; and a3, by long prescription, whatever may 
have been their origin, the words in question appear to 
have acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it 
seems proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary 
treatise of grammar : especially as this plan coincides 
with that, by which other languages must be taught ; and 
will render the study of them less intricate. It is of 
small moment, by what names and classification we dis- 
tinguish these words, provided their meaning and use are 
well understood. A philosophical consideration of the 
subject may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the 
grammatical student, when his knowledge and judgment 
become more improved. 

Section 2. J sketch of the steps ly r which the English' 
Language has riscii to its present state of refinement. 

Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will 
probably be gratifying to the curious scholar, to be in- 
formed of some particulars respecting the origin of the 
English language, and the various nations to which it is 
indebted for the copiousness, elegance, ami refinement, 
which it has now attained. 

''When the ancient Britons were so harassed and op- 
pressed by the invasions of their northern neighbours, 
the Scots and Pict3, that their situation m& truly misera- 
ble, they sent an embassy (about the middle of tie fifth 
31* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

century) to the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the 
north of Germany, with solicitations for speedy relief. 
The Saxons accordingly came over to Britain, and were 
successful in repelling the incursions of the Scots and 
Picts ; but seeing the weak and defenceless state of the 
Britons, they resolved to take advantage of it; and at 
length established themselves in the greater part of 
South-Britain, after having dispossessed the original in- 
habit ants. 

'From these barbarians, who founded several petty 
kingdoms in this island, and introduced their own laws, 
language, and manners, is derived tlie ground-work of the 
English language; which-, even in its present state of 
cultivation, and notwithstanding the successive augmen- 
tations and improvements, which it has received through 
various channels, displays very conspicuous traces of its 
Saxon original* 

"The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession 
of the kingdom ; for before the middle of the ninth cen- 
tury, the Danes, a hardy and adventurous nation, who- 
had long infested the northern seas with their piracies, 
began to ravage the English coasts. Their first attempts 
were, in general, attended ^vith such success, that they 
were encouraged to a renewal of their ravages; till, at 
length, in the beginning of the eleventh century, they 
made themselves masters of the greater part x>f England. 

'Though the period, during which these invaders oc- 
cupied the English throne, was-- very- short, not greatly 
exceeding half a century, it is highly probable that some 
change was introduced by them into the language spoken 
4>y those, whom they had subdued ; but this change can- 
u ^i ho supposed to have been very considerable* as the 
Danish &rul Saxon languages arose from one conoraoa: 
source, j fee Gothic being the parent of both. 

"The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, 
wer the NornmnB, who, in the year 1066, introduced 
their leader William--- to the possession of the English 
throne This prince, soon after his accession, endeav- 
oured to b'rmg Ms own language (the Norman-French) 
into use among his new subjects ; but his efforts were 
rot very successful, as the Saxons entertained a great 
aatioatby to these fcaughty foreigners. In process oi 



ETTivIOLOGr, 127 

time, however, many Norman words and phrases were 
incorporated into the Saxon language : but its general 
form and construction still remained the same. 

"From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language, 
continued to receive occasional accessions of foreign 
words, till it acquired such a degree of copiousness and 
strength, as to render it susceptible of that polish, which 
it has received from writers of taste and genius, in the 
last and present centuries. During this period, the Jearn- 
.ed have enriched it with many significant expressions, 
drawn from the treasures of Greek and Roman literature ; 
the ingenious and the fashionable have imported occa- 
sional supplies of French, Spanish, Italian, and German 
words, gleaned during their foreign excursions ; and the 
connexions which we maintain, through the medium of 
government and commerce, with many remote nations, 
have made some additions to our native vocabulary. 

"In this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo- 
Saxons proceed, through the various stages of innovation, 
and the several gradations of refinement, to the forxrratioa' 
of the present English tongue." 

See the TjwJfih chapter of the Octavo Grainm&r, 



. part in: 

^^■" . SYNTAX, 

The third part of grammar, is Syntax^ 
which treats of the agreement and construc- 
tion of words ia a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words form- 
ing a complete sense, 

"Sentences are of two kinds,, simple and com- 

pound.. 

A simple sentence has in it but one- subject, 
and one finite*- verb : as, "Life is short" 

A compound sentence consists of two or 
more simple sentences connected together : as, 
"Life is shorthand art is long." '"Idleness pro- 
duces want, vice and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and- 
compound, so the members of sentences may be divided 
likewise into simple and compound members : for whole 
sentences, whether simple or compounded, may become 
members of other sentences, by means of some additional 
connexion ; as in the following example : "The ox know- 
eth his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel 
doth not know, my people do not consider." This sen- 
tence consists of two compounded members, each of which 
is subdivided into two simple members, which are pro- 
perly called clauses.- 

There ^re three sorts of simple sentences ; tne expli- 
cative, or explaining; the interrogative, or asking; the 
imperative, or commanding. 

An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or 
not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a 
direct manner : as, "I am 5 thou writest ; Thomas » lov- | 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person apper- 
tain. Verbs in the infinitive woed have no reject to number or 
person, . 



SYNTAX- 129 

ed- w If the sentence be negative, the adverb notih placed 
after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it has no 
auxiliary: as, "I did not touch him ;" or, "I touched him 
not." 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is 
asked, the nominative case follows the principal verb or 
the auxiliary : as, a Was it ke ?" "Did Alexander con- 
quer the Persians ?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is command- 
ed to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case 
likewise follows the verb or the auxiliary : as, "Go, thou 
traitor !* "Do thou go : v u Haste ye away :'' unless the 
verb let be used ; as, "Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly pu£ 
together, making sometimes part of a sen- 
tence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, 
the subject, the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken off 
the attribute is the thing or action affirmed or 
denied of it ; and the object is the thing affect- 
ed by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and 
usually goes before the verb or attribute ; and 
the word or phrase denoting the object, follows 
the verb ;.. as, "A wise man governs his pas- 
sions." Here a wise man is the subject ; go- 
verns, the attribute, or thing affirmed 5 and his 
passions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, 
Concord and Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word 
has with anckher, in gender^ number, case, or 
person. % 

Govern mentis that power which one part of 
speech has ov£* another, in directing its mood,, 
p 4ise, or case, 



Y3ft" ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 1. 

To produce the agreement and right dispo- 
sition of words in a sentence, the following 
rules and observations should be carefully stu- 
died. 

RULE I. 
A Terb must agree with, its nominative 
case, in number and person: as, "I learn;" 
"Thou art improved." "The birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of 
this rule. "What signifies good opinions, when our prac- 
tice is bad?" "what signify." -'There's two or three of 
us, who have seen the work :" "there are." "We may 
suppose there was more impostors than one : 5> "there were 
more." "1 have considered what have been said on both 
sides in this controversy :" "what has been said. "If 
thou would be healthy, live temperately :" a if thou 
wouldstP "Thou sees how little has been done :" "thou 
seesL" "Though thou cannot do much for the cause, 
thou may and should do something :" "canst not, maysf, 
and shouldst." "Full many a flower are born to blush 
unseen :" "is born." "A conformity of inclinations and 
qualities prepare us for friendship :" * prepares us." u A 
variety of blessings have been conferred upon us :" "has 
been." "In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man: ?> 
"consists." "To these precepts are subjoined a copious 
selection of rules and maxims :" "is subjoined." 

* 1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times put as the nominative case to the verb : as, "To see 
the sun is pleasant ; v "To be good is to be happy ; n u A 
desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commend- 
able ;" "That warm climates should accelerate the growth 
of the human body, and shorten its duration, is very rea- 
sonable to believe ;" "To be temperate in eating and 
drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve 
the mind free from tumultuous emotions,, are the best pre- 
servatives of health." 

* The chief practical notes under each Rule, axe regularly, 
numbered, in order to make them correspond to the examples i* 

the volume of Exercises. 



Rule -1. SYNTAX. 13} 

2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the par- 
ticiple ought to have a nominative case, either expressed 
or implied: as, " Awake; arise; 5 that is, > Awake ye; 
arise ye." 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the 
use of the verb without i(s nominative care. "As it hath 
pleased him of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, 
and hath preserved you in the great danger," &c The 
yerb "hath preserved? has here no nominative case. 
it cannot be properly suppliedby the preceding word, 
"him*' which is in the object ve case. It ought to be, 
"and as he hath prt ou ; ' or rather, "and io pre- 

serve you." "If thecaJm fo v hich he was born, and last- 
ed so. long, had continued :" aid which listed," &e. 
"These we have .- extract* - i'mm an historian cf undoubted 
credit, and are the same !!• it *< re practised " &c ; "and 
they are the same." u £ man whose inclinations led him 
to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the busi- 
ness ;" "and who had.*' &c. "A cloud gathering in the 
north; which we have helped to raise, and may quickly 
break in a storm upon our heads;'* "and which* may 
jqujkkly." 

3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, 
and when an address is made to a person, should belonr 
tO sonic verb either expressed or implied : as, "Who wrote 
ihisbook?" "James;" that is, 'James wrote it." "To 
Tvhom thus Adam." that is, "spoke"." 

One or two instances of the impreper use of the nomi- 
native case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to 
answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefuln 
of the preceding observation. 

'Which rule, if it had been observed, a nefgfcfccurir^ 
prince would have wanted a great deal of that Tncenie 
which hath been offered up to him." The pronoun it h 
here the nominative case to the verb "observed $" and 
which rule, is left by itself, a nominative case without any 
verb following it. This form of expression, though im- 
proper, is very common. It ought to be, ' If this ride 
had been observed," &c. "Man. though he has great 
variety of thoughts, and such from which oihers as v> \\ 
ps himself might receive profit and delight, yet they i 
a|1 witbin his °wn breast." In this sentence, the nomiua-. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule 1. 

live man stands alone and unconnected with any verb, 
either expressed or implied, it should be, "Though man 
has great variety," &c. 

4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of 
which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, 
it may agree with either of tbem : hut seme regard must 
lie had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, 
as also to that which stands next to the verb: as, 'His 
meat was locusts and wild honey ;" "A great cause of the 
low state of industry were the restraints put upon it;" 
"The wages of sin is death." 

5. When the nominative case has no personal tense t>f 
of a verb, but is put before a participle, independently on 
the rest of the sentence, it is called the ease absolute : as, 
"Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;" *"That having 
been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume 
St." 

As in .the use of the case absolute, the case is, in En- 
glish, always the nominative, the following example is 
erroneous, in making it the objective. "Solomon was of 
this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true 
proverbs, as any body has done since : him only excepted, 
who was a much greater and wiser man than Solomon." 
It should be, "he only excepted."' 



The nominative case is commonly placed before the 
verb; but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a 
simple tense ; and between the auxiliary, and the verb or 
participle, if a compound tense: as, 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a 
wish expressed : as, "Contulest thou in me ?" 'Read 
thou;" "Mayst thou be happy 1" u Long live the king!" 

2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunc- 
tion if: as, c Were it not for this;* 5 "Had 1 been there." 

3d, When a verb neuter is used: as, "On a -sudden ap- 
peared ihe king." 

4th, When the verbis preceded by the adverbs, here, 
there, then, thence* hence, thus, &c. : as "Here ami;" 
"There was he slain;" "Then comelfa the end;" 
"Thence ariseth his grief-" "Hence proceeds his an- 
SEerV' "Thus was the affair settled." 



Rule 1. SYNTAX. 1^3 

5th, When a sentence depends on neiiner or nor, so as 
to be coupled -with another sentence : as. "Ye shall not 
eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die.'' 

Some grammarians assert, that the phrases, as follows* 
as appears, form what are called impersonal verbs ; and 
should, therefore, be confined to the singular number : as, 
"The arguments advanced were neatly as follows i' 
"The positions were as appears incontrovertible :" that is, 
* as it follows," "as it appears. 53 If we. give (say they) 
the sentence a different turn, and insieari of as, -say suck 
as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but proper- 
ly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number: a?, 
"The arguments advanced were nearly sutih as follow ;'* 
"The positions were such as appear incontrovertible-"* 

They who doubt the accuracy of Borne Tooke's state- 
ment, "That as, however and whenever used in English, 
means the same as it, or that, or which;" ami who are not 
• satisfied whether the verbs, in the sent^ncs first men- 
tioned, should be in the singular or the nkuai number, 
may vary the form of expression. Thus, the sense of the 
preceding sentences, may be cdo^eyedi m the ibsk> 
terms. 'The arguments idiatKM ■> nearly of the 

following nature;" "The following are nearly the argu- 
ments which were advanced:" ''The arguments advanced 
were nearly those which follow :" 'ft appears that the 
positions were incontrovertible ;" "That the positions 
were incontrovertible is apparent;" "The positions were 
apparently incontrovertible." &»e the Octavo Grammar; 
the note under .Rule l. 

* These grammarians are supported by general ta&ge, and by 
the authority of an eminent critic on language and composition. 
"When a verb is used impersonally. " says Dr. Campbell in hi* 
Philosophy of Rhetoric, "it ought undoubtedly! ta be in the sin- 
. gular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or un- 
derstood, for this reasojl, analogy and usage favour this mode 
of expression : "The conditions of the agreement were as fol- 
loics .•" and not, as follow. A few late writers have inconside- 
rately adopted this last form, through a mistake of the construc- 
tion. For the same reason, we ought to say, "I shall consider 
his censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct ;" and 
not 'io far as concerns 

• 32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 2. 

RULE II. 
Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular 
number, joined together by a copulative con. 
junction, expressed or understood, must have 
verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with 
them in the plural number : as, "Socrates and 
Plato were wise ; they were the most eminent 
philosophers of Greece ;"■ "The Sun that rolls 
over our heads, the food that we receive, the 
rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a su- 
perior and superintending Power." f 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which 
are annexed. "And so was also James and John the sons 
of Zebedee, who were partners with Simon ;" "and so 
roere aUo." "All joy, tranquillity, and peace, even for 
ever and ever, €loth dwell;" "dwell for ever" c By 
whose power all good and evil is distributed ;" c are dis- 
tributed.'' "Their love," and their hatred, and their envy, 
is now perished;" u are perished." 'The thoughtless 
and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal 
fibuse of it, and the forgetfulness of our being accounta- 
ble creatures, obliterates every serious 1 nought of the 
proper business of life, and effaces the sense of religion 
and of God;" It ought to be, "obliterate," and "efface" 

I. When tiie nouns are nearly related, or scarcely dis- 
tinguishable in sense, and sometimes even when they are 
very different, some authors have thought it allowable to 
put the verbs, nouns, and pronouns, -in the singular num- 
ber : as, "Tranquillity and peace dwells there;" "Ig- 
norance and negligence has produced the effect;" "The 
discomfiture and. slaughter was very great." But it is 
evidently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to 
consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be 
their shades of difference : and if there be no difference, 
one of them must he superfluous, and ought to be rejected. 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the 
verb mzy be understood as applied to each of the preced- 
ing terms : as in the following example. "Sand, and 

1 See the exceptions to this rule, sit p. 4(5 of the Key, 12th eel. 



I Rule 2.) SYNTAX. 

salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man 
without understanding:" But besides the confusion, and 
the latitude of application, which such a construction 
would introduce, it appears to be more proper and ana- 
logical, in cases where the verb is intended to be applied 
to any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive 
conjunction, which grammatically refers the verb to one 
or other of the preceding terms in a separate view. %* 
preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and dis- 
junctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, 
consistent,and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, 
lhat "two or more substantives, joined by a copulative, 
must always require the verb or pronoun to which they 
refer, to be placed in the plural number." 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learn- 
ers to determine, whether one or more of the clauses are 
io be considered as the nominative case ; and conse- 
quently, whether the verb should be in the singular or 
the plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a num- 
ber of varied examples of this nature, which may serve 
as some government to the scholar, with respect to sen- 
tences of a similar construction. 'Prosperity, with hu- 
mility, renders its possessor truly amiable." "The ship, 
with all her furniture, was destroyed." "Not only his 
estate, his reputation too has suffered by his miscon- 
duct." "The general also, in conjunction with the offi- 
cers, has applied for redress." "He cannot be justified; 
for it is true, that the prince, as well as the people, was 
blameworthy. 5 ' "The king, with his life-guard, has just 
passed through the village." "In the mutual influence 
of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, 
which we cannot fathom, 5 ' « ; Virtue, honour, nay, even 
self interest conspire to recommend the measure." "Pa- 
triotism, morality, every public and private considera- 
tion, demand our submission to just and lawful govern- 
ment." •'Nothing delights me so much as the works of 
nature." 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, 
we see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other wri- 
ters ; and we annex them for the readers consideration, 
"A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and 
circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions.' 



ICO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, (Rule 3v 

''The king, with the lords and commons, form an excel- 
lent frame of government." "The side A, with the sides 
B and 0, compose the vriangle." "The fire communicat- 
ed itself to the bed, which, with the furniture of the room, 
and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed." It 
is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of ex- 
pression do not appear to be warranted by the just prin- 
ciples of construction: The words, ci A long course of 
time," "The king** "The ride A," and "which," are 
the true nominatives '.to the respective verbs* In the last, 
example, the word all should be expunged. As the pre- 
position with governs the objective case in English; and, 
if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case 5 
it is manifest, that the clauses following ivith, in the pre- 
ceding sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative 
case. They cannot be at the same time in the objective 
and the nominative cases. The following sentence ap- 
pears to be unexceptionable ; and may serve to explain 
the others* "The lords and commons are essential 
branches of the British constitution : the king, with them, 
forms an excellent frame of government"* 

3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are join- 
ed together by a copulative conjunction, be of several 
persons, in making the plural pronoun agree with them in 
person, the second person takes place of the third, and 
the first of both: as/"James, and thou, and I, are attach- 
ed to our country." "Thou and be shared it between 
you." 

RULE III. 
The conjunction disjunctive has an effect 
contrary to that of the conjunction copulative ; 
for as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is- referred to 
the preceding terms taken separately, it must 
be in the. singular number : as, "Ignorance or 
negligence has caused this mistake ;" "John, 
James, or Joseph, intends to accompany me f 

* Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the 
sentence would certainly stand better thus : "The king, the 
lords, ana the commons, /©rm an easelteat constitution^ 



Rule 4,) systtax. 137 

u There is, in many minds, neither know- 
ledge nor understanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : 
ran may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, 
l9 read them in a description ;"' 'read UP "Nei- 
ther character nor dialogue were yet understood ;" "was 
'•It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or 
ire do not carry in them robbery or murder ;" "does 
carry in it" "Death, or some worse misfortune, 
!©on divide them." It ought to be "divides." 

1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of 
different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb 
mm\ agree with that person which is placed nearest to it :' 
I or thou urt to biame ;*' • "Thou or I am in fault :' : 
"I, or thou, or he, is the author of it ;" "George or I am 
the person." But it would be better to say ; "Either I 
am to blame, or thou art " &:c. 

When a disjunctive occurs -between a singular noun, 
or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree 
with the plural noun and pronoun : as, "Neither poverty 
nor riches were injurious to him ;*' t t; I or they were offend- 
ed by it.*' But in this case, the pliiraljftron er pronoun 
when it can conveniently be do*; be placed **ext 

to the verb, 

RULE IV. 

A noun of multitude, or sign many, 

may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, 
either, of the singular or plural number ; yfet 
not without regard to the import of iiie word, 
as conveying unity or plurality of idea : as^ 
"The meeting icas large j** "The parliament 
is dissolved; 55 "The nation is powerful ;" "My 
people do not consider : they have not known 
me f* 4 ?1 he multitude eagerly pursue plea- 
sore, as Iheir chief good ;" "The council 
were divided in their sentiments/' 



We Ought to consider whether the term will inv 

tt 

A* 



ately he idea of the Lumber it i 



138' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 5£ 

whether it. exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as 
one thing. In the former case, the verb ought io.be plu- 
ral ; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems 
improper to say, 'Tire peasantry goes barefoot, and the 
middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It would be 
better to say, "The peasantry go barefoot, and the mid- 
uie sort make use," because the idea in both these cases, 
h that of a number. On the contrary, there is a harsh- 
ness in the following sentences, in which nouns of num- 
ber have verbs plural; because the ideas they represent 
seernnot to be sufficiently divided in; the mind. "The 
court of Rome were not without solicitude." "The 
house of commons were of small weight." "The house 
of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." 
^Stephen's party were entirely broken up by the cap- 
tivity of their leader." "An army of twenty-four thou- 
mtz&were assembled." "What reason have the church 
of Rome, for proceeding in this manner ?" "There 
is indeed no constitution so tame and careless of their 
own defence." "All the virtues of mankind are to be 
counted upon a few fingers, but Ms follies and vices are 
innumerable." Is not mankind in this place a noun of 
, multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to, 
it to be in the plural number, their ? 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must alw ays agree with their afiu 
fecedentSj and the nouns for which they stand,, 
in gender and number : as, "This i&the friend 
whom I love f "That is the vice which I 
hate ■;" "The king and the queen had put on 
their robes : v "The moon appears, and she 
ghiiies, but the light is not her own." 

The relative is" of the same person as the 
antecedent, and the v^rb agrees with it accor- 
dingly : as',' "Thou who latest wisdom y\ "I 
who $j)edk from experience/' 

Of this rule there are many violations to l:e met with; 
2. Jew of which may b;. efficient to put the Itaraeroji hk 



Rule 5.) syntax. 139 

guard. "Each of the sexes should keep iviihih its parti- 
cular hounds, and content themselves with the advantages 
of their particular districts:" better thus: 'The sexes 
should keep within their particular hounds," &c. "Can 
any one, on their entrance into the world be fully secure 
that they shall not be deceived ?" "on his entrance." and 
"that he shall." 'One should not think too favourably o 
ourselves ;" "ozone's self: 1 "He had one acquaintance 
which poisoned his principles;" "who poisoned/' 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it re- 
fers, either expressed or implied : as," Who is fatal to oth- 
ers is so to himself;" that is, 4 '//i£ man who is fatal toothers." 

Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in the 
objective case, are always placed before the verb; as are 
also their compounds, whoever, whosoever, &c. ; as, "He 
whom ye seek;" "This is what, or the thing which, or 
that you want;" "Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears 
to he exceptionable : as, "All fevers, except what are 
called nervous," &c. It would at least be better to ssy^ 
"except those which are called nervous." 

1. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of 
the noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence 
as the noun which they represent; for li would be im- 
proper, to say, ''The king he is just;" "I saw tar the 
queen;" "The men they were there:" "Many words 
they darken speech:" "My banks they are furnished with 
bees." These personals are sHperfluous, as there is not 
the least occasion for a substitute iri the same part v, here 
the principal word is present. The nominative case they n 
in the following sentence, is also superfluous; "Who. in- 
stead of' going- about <lou>«; good, Uiezj are perpetually in- 
tent upon doing mischief" 

2. The pronoun tlieA is frequently applied to persons as 
■well as to things ; but after an adjective in the superlative 
degree, snd after the pronominal adjective same\\ is gene- 
rally used in preference to who or ?vhich • as, ; Oh- i -f s XI f. 
king of Sweden, was one of 'the greatest madmen that the 
world ever saw;" "Cari1tne ? s followers were th^ most *;ro- 
iiigate thai could be found in any citj ." "He is \)v same 

. auin that we saw before," There are cases wherein wo; 



*4<J ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as \ 
to persons: as, first, after who (he interrogative 
that has any sense of religion, would have argued ihm . 
Secondly, when persons make but a part of the antec 
dent; "The woman, and the estate, that became his pt 
fion, were too much for his moderation. "' In neither l 
these examples could any other relative have been used. 
3. The pronouns : whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, 
are elegantly divided by the interposition ef the corres- 
ponding substantives- : thm'i "On vvhichsoever'side Vm 
king cast his eyes," would have sound 
ten, (t Oii which side spfcver," &c, 

„ 4. Many persons are apt, in coo versa Hon, to put the 
objective case of the persona! pr« 
these &n&4kose ; as, 1 "Give me lb 

u those books;" We may sometimes t fault even 

in writing : as, "Observe tkeni three u. We also 

frequently meet with those instead of they at the begin- 
ning of a sentence, and whore there is no particular refe- 
rence to an antecedent; as, "These i\v\t sow in tears, 
sometimes reap in joy ." They that, or they who sow in 
tears. 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a per- 
sonal pronoun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain 
constructions. "We are not unacquainted with the ca- 
lumny of them [or those] who openly make use of the ; 
"warmest professions." 

5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used 
for that, and sometimes we find it in this sense in wri- 
ting : "They will never believe but what I have been 
entirely to blame." "I am not satisfied but what," &c. 
instead of "but that."' The word somewhat, in the 
following sentence seems to be used improperly. 
u These punishments seem to have been exercised in 
somewhat an arbitrary manner " Sometimes we read, 
"In somewhat of." The meaning ity "in a manner which 
is in some. respects- arbitrary." 

6. The pronoun relative n&0 is so much appropriated^ 
,tto persons, that there is generally harshness in the ap- 
plication, of if, except to the proper names of persons, or 
the general ievtm inan r woman, &e« A term which only 



JEJuIe 5.) syntax. 141 

implies the idea of persons and expresses them by some 
circumstance or epithet, "will hardly authorise the use of* 
it : as, "That faction in England who most powerfully op- 
posed his arbitrary pretensions. 55 u That faction wlvfchf* 
would have been better; and the same remark will serve 
for the following examples : "France, who was in alli- 
ance with Sweden. 55 "The court, who V &c* ''The caval- 
ry, who" &c. "The cities who aspire at liberty. ' 5 "That 
party among us who,''' &c. 'The family whom they con- 
sider as usurpers. 55 

In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pro- 
noun is properly applied or not : as. 'The number of 
substantial inhabitants with whom some cities abound.** 
For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, 
it may in many cases claim the persona! relative. "None 
of the company whom he most affected., could cure him 
of the melancholy under which he laboured. 55 The word 
acquaintance may have the same construction. 

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, be- 
cause that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection : 
and therefore the application of the personal relative who^ 
in this case, seems to be harsh : "A child who" It is 
still more improperly applied to animals: Ci A lake fre- 
quented by that fowl tvlwm nature has taught to dip the 
whig in water," 

8. When the name of a person is used merely as a 
name, and it does not refer to the person, the pronoun 
who ought not to be applied. ^ It is no wonder if such a 
man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who 
was but another name for prudence and economy. 55 Bet- 
ter thus; "whtse name was but another word for pru- 
dence, 55 &c. The word whose begins likewise to be re- 
stricted to persons ; yet it is not done so generally, but 
that good writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of 
things. The construction is not, however, generally 
pleasing, as we may see in the following instances: 
4 Pleasure, whose nature, 55 &c. "Call every production, 
whose parts and whose nature, 55 &c. 

In one case, however, custom authorigps us to use 
michwith respect to persons; end that is when we want, 
to distinguish one person of two, cr a particular person 
among a number of others. Wc should then sav, 'Which 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 5. 

of the two, 5 ' or 'Which of thera, i3 he or she?" 

9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of num- 
ber, we sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it : as 
when we say, "The disciples of Christ, wham we imi- 
tate ;" we may mean the imitation either of Christ or of 
his disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sen- 
tence, depend very much upon the proper and determi- 
nate use of the relative, so that it may readily present its 
antecedent ta the mind of the hearer or reader, without 
any obscurity or ambiguity. 

10. It is and it was. are often, after the manner of the 
French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our 
best writers : as, i( lt is either a few great men who decide 
for the. -whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious 
ringleader :" "It is they that are the real authors, though 
the soldiers are the actors of the revolution;' 5 a It was 
the heretics that first began to rail," &c. ; UJ Tis these that 
early taint the female mind " This licence in the con- 
struction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, 
however, been certainly abused in the following sentence, 
which is hereby made a very awkward one. "It is won- 
derful the very few accidents, which, in several years, 
happen from; this practice." 

U. The interjections O! Oh ! and Ah\ require the 
objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them : 
as, "O me! Oh me i Ah me !" But the nominative case 
ia the second person : as '-"O thou persecutor -!." "Oh ye 
hypocrites !"' a O thou, who dweliest,' 5 &c. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the Eng- 
lish language, is frequently joined in explanatory senten- 
ces, with a noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine 
gender: as, "Itwas<L;" u Ii was the manor woman 
that did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and under- 
stood; thus we say, "As appears, as follows ;" for "As 
k appears* as it follows.;" and "May be," for "If may 
press ; 

1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry: as, Ci It 
happened on a summer^ day \ v "Who is it that calls on 
me ?" 



>Rule C.) syntax. 145 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing; as, 
*'Ffow is it wilh you ;V 

3d, The ihing, h e '* t M be, that is the cause of 
my effect or ev?nt, on considered merely as 

a cause : as, ** >V e he -.: «! h^j? say it was not he;" "The 
Buth is.it was i that helped hi 

RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the 
verb, when no nominative comes between it 
and the verb : as, 'The master who taught 
us ;" 'The trees which are planted/' 

W Ken a aomin live comes between the rela- 
tive and the verb, h governed by 
soute word in its own member of fee sentence : 
as. "He irao preserves me, to tthom I owe my 
beins;, whose I am, and whc is eter- 
nal." 

In the severa! members of the last sentence, the rela- 
tive performs a different office. In the first member, it 
marks the agent ; in the second it submits fo-ihe govern 

,ment of the preposition; in the third, it represents the 
possessor; and in the fo< nh. the object of an action : an;! 
therefore it musJ ^e in the three different cases, coi 
jfcondent to those offices. 

When hoih the antecedent a»d relative become 
nominatives, each to different verbs, tin-, relative is the 
nominative to the former, and the antecedent to the letter 
verb : as ? ik True philosophy, which is i tent cf our 

nature, consists more in the love of cur dutjy ansi 

i practice of virtue, than in great talents and extern 
knowledge." 

A tew instances of erroneous con 3 ti*uc Lion, will ilJus- 

jfeate both the branches of the sixth rule. 1 
flowing refer to the first part. ' ')* 
fy'dU fi?' (<> those whom, ! 
proved themselves our real friends t " \ 
l^en whom, you might suppose, were the m 
vorV :•> "If you were here, yoa would find 



rieir time agreeably P m 
who instead of whom. The 
in a nominative between the 
therefore, seem to contra- 
dutenl will reflect, that it is not 
?rb with which the relative is 
; examples refer to ih? second 
" Sue ialerite are nt>t always the 
esteem." "The persons who 
pute with, are precisely of your opinion "„ u Our 
are our benefactors, who "we owe obedience to, and 
ao we ought to love." In these sentences, whom 
should be used instead of rvho. 

1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
kind, the noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be 
in the same case as that which contains the question : as, 
'Whose books are these? They are John's." "Who 
gave them to him ? We/' "Of whom did you buy them? 
Of a bookseller; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." 
f "Whmn did you see there ? Both him and ike shopman." 
The learner will readily comprehend i his rule, by sup- 
plying the words which are understood in the answers. 
TIiub, to express the answers at huge, we should say, 
'Whey are John's books/' "We gave t he jp to Mm* 
"W e bought them of him. who lives," &c. "We saw 
both him and the shopman." — As the relaiive pronoun, 
when used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word 
Of phrase containing the answer to the question, that j 
Word or phrase may properly be termed the mbpetpient t© 
the interrogative.; 



RULE vn. 
"When the relative is preceded by two noma* 



natives 01 diflerebt pefso&s, im rci 



m4 

verb may agree hi person wiit? either^ accord- 
ing to the -sense : as, "I am the man who com. 

mamiyau f ory"I am the roan who eommandsi 
Jon/ r 
The 



ioroi 



/of the first of the two preceding; sentence^ 



i-co the meaning rather obscurely. 



be 1 



jRjuIe 8.) SYNTAX. t$f 

more perspicuous to say ; "I, who command you. am the 
Tnan/ 5 Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced by 
referring the relative to different antecedents, will be 
more evident to the learner, in the following sentences. 

I 4; I am the general who gives the orders to-day;" "I am 

I the general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, a I who 

I .give the orders to-day, am the general.*' 5 

When the relative and the verb have been determin- 
ed to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, 
that agreement must be preserved throughout Hie sen- 
tence : as in the following instance ; 4 I am the Lord that 
maketh all things ; that stretcheih forth the heavens alone. 5 ' 
tea. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent : The Lord, in the 
ttird person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with 
the relative in the third person : u l am the Lord, which 

• Lord, or he that maketh all things." 5 If J were made the 
antecedent, the relative and verb should agree with it in 

_ the first person : as, At l arn the LeMjkat make all things, 
that stretch forth the heavens alone/ 5 But should it fol- 
low ; 'That spreadeth abroad the earih by myself r 5 there 
would arise a confusion of.persous, and a 'manifest sole- 
cism. 

RULE VllL 

Every adjective, and every adjective pro- 

laoun, belongs to a substantive, expressed or 

j understood : as, "He is a .good as well as a 

mvis&man ?? "Few are happy," that is, "per- 

w $ons;" "Tkk is a pleasant walk f that is, 

"This walk is," &c. 

Adjective pronouns must agree, in sumber, 
with their substantives: as. "This book, these 
books; that sort, those sorts; another read, 
other roads." 

I. ADJECTIVE P&QSOUNS, 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here ex- 
I .iubited. "I have not travelled this twenty y & 

utpenty." <i am not recommending these kind 
/ingsj" «ihis kind." "Those set of books was a 

present ; ;? "thai set." 

13 



1*8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

1. The word means in the singular number, and the 
phrases, "By this means," ''By that means," are used by 
our best and most correct writers ; namely. Bacon, Til- 
Sotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope; &c>* They 
are, indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would 
appear awkward, if not affected, to apply the old singular 
form, and say, "By this mean ; by that mean ; it was by 
a meanj" although it is more agreeable to the general 
analogy of the language. "The word means (say sPriest ley) 
belongs to. the class of words, which do not change their 

* "By this means, he had them the more at vantage, being 

tired and harassed with a long march." Bacon, 

"By this means one great restraint from doing evil, would.be 

iaken away."-— "And this is an admirable means to improve men 

ki virtue." — "By that means they have rendered their duty more 

difficult" Tillotson. 

"It renders us careless of approving, ourselves to. God, and by 

'hat means securing the continuance of his goodness." — U A good 

character, when established, should not be rested in as an end, 

but employed as a means of doing still further good." Atterbury. 

"By this means they are happy, in each other."-— "He- by that 

means preserves his superiority." •Addison. 

"Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele. 

"By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." 

Pope. 

^Whieh cusfjoni has proved the most effectual means to ruin 

fiie nobles." ' Dean Swift* 

"There is no mean.? of escaping the persecution." — "Faith is 

not onlv a means of obeying, but a principal act of obedience." 

Dr. YouriA<< 

"lie looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining aJH 

increasing power." Lord Lytt eltori* s Henry iT. 

"John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means 

afforded for his safety." ' . Goldsmith. 

"Lett this means should fail." — "By means of ship-money, the 

iute king," &c — "The only : means of securing a durable peace." 

Hume. 

"By this means 'there was nothing left to the parliament of 

Jr eland." &c. Blackstone. 

"By this means so many slaves escaped, out of the hands of 

tHeir masters. " & r ' Robertson* 

"By this means they bear witness to each other." Burke. 

"By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against it- 

self. 17 " & r ' Btyi r * 

* A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," &cM 

"Errds, in general., procure their food by means of their beak." 

'■ " ' Dr. Palcy 



Rule 8.) syntax. 

termination on account of number ; for it is used alike ia 
both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the fol- 
1 lowing sentences : "Though he did not succeed, he 
I gained the approbation ol' his country : and with this 
I amends he was content-" "Peace cf mind is an honorable 
I amends for the sacrifices of interest." "In return, he re- 
I ceived the thanks of his -employers- and the present of a 
I large estate : these were ample amends for all his labours." 
(, We have described the rewards of vice : the good man's 
amends are of a d liferent nature." 

It -can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like 
the -word means) had formerly its correspondent form in 
the singular number, as it is derived from the French 
amende, though now it is exclusively established in. the 
plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged tiiat mean should 
be applied to the singular, because it is derived from the 
French moyen, the same kind of argument may be ad- 
vanced in favour of the singular amende ; and the general 
-analogy of .the language may also be pleaded in support - 

Wit. 

Campbell, in his ^Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the 
following remark on the subject before us; "No persons 
of taste will, I presume, venture so far to violate the pre- 
sent usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the ge- 
nerality of readers, as to say, "By this mean* by that 
mean." 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of 
means in the singular number. They do not, however, 
speak decisively on the point ; but rather dubiously, and 
as if they knew that they were questioning eminent au- 
thorities, as --well as general practice. That they were 
not decidedly against the application of this word to the 
singular number, appears from their own language : 
"Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may 
become members of other sentences by means of some 
additional connexion."—]}*. Lowth's Introduction to En* 
gUsh Grammar* 

"There is no other method of teaching that of which 
| any one is ignorant, but by means of sometidng already 
known." — Dr. Johnson. Idler. 

It ia remarkable that our present version of the Scrip-- 



*4S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule $v 

tures makes no use, as far as the compiler can discover^ 
of the word mean ; (bough there are several instances to> 
be found in it of the use ofmeans, in the sense and con- 
nexion contended for, "By this means thou sbalt have 
no portion on this side the river.' 5 Ezra iv. 16. "That by 
means gl death," &c. Heh. ix. 15. It will scarcely be 
pretended that the translators of the sacred volumes did 
not accurately understand the English language ; or that 
ihey would have admitted one form of this word, and re- 
jected the other,. -bad not their determination been con- 
formable to the best usage. An attempt therefore to re- 
cover an old word, so long since disused by the most cor- 
rect writers, seems not likely to be successful ; especially 
as the rejection of it is not attended with any inconveni- 
ence. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a< 
great majority of diem, corroborated by general usage, 
formf, during us continuance, the standard of language ; 
esjreciaHy, ig in particular instances, this practice con- 
tinue after objection and due consideration. Every con- 
nexion and application of words and phrases, thus sup- 
ported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to respect, 
it not exceptionable in a morHrpoint of view. 

• <...♦ <»••• ...... ...,,. u Si volet usus 

Quem penes arbitriam est, et jus, et norma loquendi."' HOB*. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less 
deviating from the general analogy of the language, than 
tbose before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly 
proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following. 
*None of them, arc varied to express the gender;' 5 and 
yet none originally signified no one*. "He himself shall 
do the work:* 5 here 3 what was at first appropriated to 
the objective, is now properly used as the nominative 
case. "Yen have behaved yourselves well :"' in this 
example, the word yon is put in the nominative case plu- 
ral, with strict propriety; though formerly it was con- 
fmed to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for 
the nominative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, 
thus established, it is the grammarian's business to sub- 
mit* rot to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the 



RuleS.) SYNTAX, j 

decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete 
-modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning 
and critical sagacity ; and, in some degree, obscure points 
* -that are sufficiently clear and decided; hut lie cannot 
reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist 
the learner in discovering and respecting the true stand- 
ard and 'principles oflangnage. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly 
within the grammarian's province. Here, lie may reason 
and remonstrate on the ground of derivation, analogy, 
and propriety ; and his reasonings may -refine and improve, 
the language : but when authority speaks out and decides 
■ the point?. it were perpetually to unsettle the language, - 
| to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies then, under 
the limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as 
the plainest analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following senten 
ces, the use of the word mean iri the old form has a very 
uncouth appearance : ; By ihe mean of adversity we are 
often instructed." 'He preserved his health by mean ol 
exercise." "Frugality is one main of acquiring a compe- 
tency." They should he, 4 *By ms&m&ui' adversity,*- &c 
"By means of exercise," &c. "Frugality is one means/' &c 
Good writers do indeed make u=e of the subbiautive 
> viean in the singular number, and in that number only, to 
signify mediocrity, middle rate. &re. as, "This is a nuau 
between the two extremes.*' But in the sense of insiru* 
mentality, it lias been long disused by the best authors, 
am! by almost every writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when 
they refer to what is singular ; these means and those 
means, when they respect plurals : as, 'He lived tempe- 
rately, and by this means preserved his health y : *The 
scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient tu their 
tutors; and by these means acquired knowledge 

We have enlarged on this article, that the young stu- 
dent may be led to reSect en a point so important, as 
of ascertaining the standard of propriety. in t:. 
language. 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a b 
iencc, and there is occasion to mention them again 
the sake of distinction, Hiai is used in reference to 



£&* EKGUSfcH GRAMMAR, (Rale & 

former, and this, in reference to the latter : as, "Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by rea- 
son : but for that, man would be inactive ; and but for 
this, he would be active to no end." 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every,, 
eithcr t agree with the nouns,, pronouns, and verbs, of the 
singular number only r as, "The king of Israel, and Je- 
hoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne ;" 
"Every tree is known by Us fruit :'* unless the plural 
noun convey a collective idea : as, "Every six months ;" 
"Every hundred years."- — -The following phrases are 
exceptionable. "Let each esteem others better than 
themselves :" It ought to be ^himself." "The language 
should be both perspicuous and correct : in proportion as 
either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is 
imperfect r' it should be, "is wanting." "Every one of 
the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of at- 
tachment : v "bears a regular date, and contains" "Every 
town and village were burned : every grove and every 
tree were cut down :" "was burned, and was cut down." 
See the Key^ p. 1 6 ; and the Octavo Grammar, Second edi- 
tion, volume 2, page 322. 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each: as, 
"The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, 
sat either of them on his throne ;" u Nadab and Abihu, 
the sons of .Aaron, took either of them his censer." Each 
signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately; 
either properly signifies on \y the one or the other of them 
iaken disjunctively^ 

In the course of this work, .some examples will appear J 
of erroneous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with 
respect to grammatical construction: but it may be proper 
to remark, that notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, 
the Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate gram- 
matical composition that we have in the English lan- 
guage. The authority. of ■ several eminent grammarians 
might be adduced in support of this assertion ; but it may 
be sufficient. to., mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who 
says, "The present translation of the Bible is the best 
4i&S3dard of the English language." 



Role 3.) syntax; js\ 

II. ADJECTIVES. 

4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad- 
1 verbs: as, "indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable 
poor ;" instead of k; IndifFerentI y honest ; excellently well ; 
miserably poor." "He behaved himself conformable to 
that great example ; n "conformably." "Endeavour to 
live hereafter suitable to a person in thy station;" ^suit- 
ably." "I can never think so very mean of him;* 5 
il 7neanly. v "He describes this river agreeable to the 
common reading:" "agreeably ■.'* "Agreeable to my pro- 
mise. I now write :" "agreeably." "Thy exceeding great 
reward :" When united to an adjective, or adverb not 
1 ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added to it : as 
. "exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" "exceeding 
ly well, exceedingly more active " but when it is joined 
to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly 
is omitted : as, "Some men think exceeding clearly, and 
reason exceeding forcibly :" "She appeared, on this oc- 
casion, exceeding lovely." "He acted in this business < 
bolder than was expected ;" "They behaved the noblest 
because they were disinterested." They should have been' 
"more boldly ;most nobly:'— The adjective pronoun such 
is often misapplied; as, "He was such an extravagant 
young man. that he spent his whole patrimony in a few 
years;" it should be, "so extravagant a youn^ man" 
"I never before saw such large trees ;" "saw* trees so 
large." When we refer to the species or nature of a 
T thing, the word such is properly applied; as, "Such a 
' A temperis seldom found ;" but when degree is si-nified 
found!" thC WOrdw: aS ' " S ° bad a temper is Seldom 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives • as 
"The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm but «nit' 
ably- to his offence;" "suitable » "They were aeen wan 
ydenrig about solitarily and distressed ;" "solitary" «h!I 




* For the rale to determine whether an adjective or in ^ 
verb is to be used, see English Exercises, ««/^ tf L Y JrtZ 
sequent, edition, pa§« 14o! " °* anj fiui ** 



152 ENGLISH grammas;. 

5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided ; such as, "A worser conduct ;" w 'On lesser hopes;'' 
"A more serener temper ;" 'The most straitest sect ;" "A 
more superior work." They should be, "worse conduct f* 
> c less hopes;' 5 "a more serene temper;" 6 the straitest 
sect ;" u a superior work." 

0. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative 
signification, do not properly admit oi' 'the -superlative or 
comparative form superadded : such as, "Chief, extreme* 
perfect, right, universal, supreme" &c. which are some- 
times improperly written, "Chiefest, extremes*, perfect- 
esi, Tightest, most universal, most supreme," <kz. The 
following expressions are therefore improper. "Hi some- 
times claims admission to the cw^i offices." "The 
quarrel became &o universal- and national j" "A method 
of attaining the rightist and greatest happiness." The 
phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, 
&e. are incorrect ; because they imply that one thing is f 
less^perfect, less extreme. &c. than another, which is not 
possible. 

7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which 
the degrees of comparison are applied and construed. 
The following are examples of wrong construction in this 
respect : ''This noble nation hath* of all others, admitted 
fewer corruptions."' The word fewer is- here construed 
precisely as if it were the superlative. It should be, 
"This itoble -natiqn hath admitted fewer corruptions than 
sny other." V*-e commonly say, i4 This is the weaker 
af the two;" or; "The weakest of the two:" but the 
former Is the regular mode of expression, because there- 
are only two things compared. "The vice of covetous- 
Bess is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." 
"He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect 
of all others" Both these modes of expression are faul- 
ty i we should not say, "The best of any man," or, "The 
best of any other maa," for "the best of men." The 
sentences may be -corrected 'by substituting the compara- 
tive in the room of the superlative. "The vice, &c. is 
"tthat enters deeper into the soul than any other." "He 
celebrates, &c. as more perfect than any other." It is 
also possible to retain the superlative, and render the ex- 
T session . graawaatical. ''Covetousness, of all vices. 



Rule 3.) syntax. T53 

enters the deepest into the soul." t; He celebrates, &c. 
as the mo3t perfect of all churches." These sentence* 
eontain other errors, against which it is. proper to caution 
<tbe learner. The words deeper and deepest, being in- 
tended for adverbs, should have been more deeply, most 
deeply. The phrases more perfect, and most perfect , are 
improper.; because perfection admits of no degrees of 
comparison. We may say nearer or nearest to perfection* 
or more or less imperfect. 

8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated 
from tfceir substantives, even by words which modify their 
meaning, and make but one sense with them ; as, "A 
large enough number surely." It should be, "A number- 
large enough." 'The lower sort of people are good 
fuiough judges of one not very distant from them?* 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : 
as, " A generous man;" "How amiable t woman !" Tke 
instances in which it corner after the substantive, are the 
following. 

1st, When something depends upon the adjective; and 
when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : a?, 
"A man generous to his enemies ;" "Feed me with food 
convenient for me ;" '• A tree three feet thick ;" "A body 
of troops fifty thousand strong;" "The torrent tumbling 
through rocks abrupt" 

2d, When the adjective is emphatical : as, "Alexan- 
der the Great;" "Lewis the Bold;' • Goodness infinite;" 
''Wisdom unsearchable." 

j 3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : 
E, "A man just, wise, and charitable ;" ''A woman mo- 
dest, sensible, and virtuous/' 

4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : 
as, "A boy regularly studious ;" "A girl unaffectedly 
modest." 

5th, When the verb to be. in any of its variations^ 

t>mes between a substantive and an adjective, theadjec- 
ve may frequently either precede or follow it (!S , 4 >The 
pan is happy ; or, happy is the man who makes virtue 
tts choice:" "The interview was delighxfia ; or, '■<&■■ 
Mghtful was the interview." 
6th ? When the adjective expresses some circumstance. 



1|4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. 

$f a substantive placed after an active verb : as, "Vanity 
often renders its possessor despicable." In an exclama- 
tory sentence, the adjective general \y precedes the sub- 
stantive; as, "How despicable doe3 vanity often render 
its possessor \ v # 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in 
placing the adjective before the verb, and the substan- 
tive immediately after it: as* "Great is the Lord! just 
and true are thy ways, thou King of saints I" ' 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a 
number of particulars comprehended under it. "Ambi- 
tion, interest, honour, ail concurred. 5 ' Sometimes a sub- 
stantive, w hich likewise comprehends the preceding par* 
ticulars, is used in conjunction wdth this adjective : as, 
"Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, 
patriots, all parties , concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun., in the plural number, will some- 
times properly associate with a singular noun : as, "Our 
desire, your intention, their resignation. " This associa- 
tion applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, 
than to those which are corporeal. It forms an excep- 
tion to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one- 
compounded word, whsnee they often take another ad- 
jective, and sometimes a third, and so on : as, c; An old 
man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good 
old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, 
it is, in many instances, put as if it were absolute ; espe- 
cially where the noun has been mentioned before, or is 
easily understood, though not expressed : as, "I often 
survey the green fields, as 1 am very fond of green r 
"The wise, the virtuous, the honoured, famed, and 
great," that is, "persons;" "The twelve," that is, ^apos- 
tles ;' ? "Have compassion on the poor ; be feet to the 
lame, and eyes to. the blind." 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this 
case, the word so used is sometimes unconnected with the 
substantive to which it relates ; sometimes connected 
with it by a hyphen ; amfsometimes joined to it, so as to 
make the two words coalesce. The total separation is 
proper, when eitlier of the two words is long, or w hea 



Mule 9.) SYNTAX. L> 

they cannot be fluently pronounced as one word : as, an 
adjective pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cistern : the 
hyphen is used* when both the words are short, and are 
readily pronounced as a single word : as, coal-mine, 
. corn-mill, fruit tree : the words coalesce, when they are 
readily pronounced together ; have a long established 
association ; and are in frequent use : as, honeycomb, 
gingerbread, inkhorn, Yorkshire, 

Sometimes the ac\jeetive becomes a 'substantive, and 
has another adjective joined to it: as, -The chief 
good;" "The vast immense of space. 5 ' 

When an adjective has a preposition before it, the 
substantive being understood, it -takes the nature of an 
adverb, and is considered as an adverb : as. "In gene- 
ral, in particular, in baste," c&c; that is, "Generally, 
particularly, hastily. 55 

Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough : but 
it is jiow obsolete, 

RULE IX. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the 
singular number only, individually or collec- 
tively : as, "JL christian, an infidel, a score, a 
thousand." The definite article the may 
agree with nouns in the singular and plural 
number: as, "The .garden, the .houses, the 
stars." > 

The articles are often properly omitted: when 
used, they should be justly applied, according 
to their distinct nature : as, -"Gold is corrupt", 
ing ; the sea is green ; a lion is bold." 

It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or 
limit the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one sin- 
gle thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which : 
<**<*< 3 which it is, or of many, which they are. 

l '- lv :>wing passage will serve as an example of (lie 
differ s of a and the, and ot the force of the subst da- 

tive - Bray article. "Man was made for soci-.-ty. 

and ought to extend his good will to all men; hut a mm 



156 ENoiiiSH grammar. 4 (Rule 9« 

will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for 
the men with whom he has the most frequent intercourse; 
ami enter into a still cioser union with the man whose 
temper nd disposition suk {$est with his own," 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be 
of gome use to exhibit a few instances : i And I persecut- 
ed thjs way unto the death." The apostle does not mean 
any particular sort of death, but death in general: the 
definite article therefore is improperly used : it ought to 
be "unto death*" without any article. 

''When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he "will guide 
you into ail truth ;" that is, according to this translation, 
*'into all truth whatsoever, into truth of all kinds;" very 
different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from 
the original, s iato all the truth;" that is, 'into all evan- 
gelical truth- all truth accessary for you to know." 

"Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to 
be u the wheel," used as an installment for the particular 
purpose of torturing criminals. "The Almighty hath 
given reason to a man to be a light unto him ;" it should 
rather he, "to man" in general. "This day is salvation 
come to this house, forasmuch as he also is the son of 
Abraham ; it ought to be, "a son of Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance 
of the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the 
English language in this respect ; which, by means of its 
two articles, does most precisely determine the extent of 
signification of common names. 

t. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made 
by the use or omission of the article a. If I nay, % 'He 
behaved with a little reverence;" my meaning i3 posi- 
tive. If I say, "He behaved with little reverence;" my 
meaning h negative. And these two are by no mc-ms 
the same, or to be used in tire same cases. By the for- 
mer, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise 
Mm/ For the sake of this distinction, which is a very 
useful one, we may better be eeraiag impropriety 

of the article a before nouns of number. When I say, 
"There were few men w it khim" I speak diminutively, 
rmd mean to represent them as incorisi .ie^Vie , whereas, 
wlien I say, "There were a lew men with him," I evi- 
dently intend to muke the most of them. 



Rule 9) fcYSTAX. 157 

2. In general, it may besufficient to prefix the article 
to the former of two words in t lie same construction; 
though the French never fail to repeat it in this case. 
"There were many hours, both of (he night and day, 
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary 
thought." It. might have been "of the itigkt and tf the 
day."' And, for the sake of ernphans, we often repeat the 
article in a series of epithets. "He hoped that thi3 title 
would secure him an ample and an independent authority." 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we 
frequently omit the articles which might he inserted with 
propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. "At 
worst, tim might be gained by this expedient.' 5 "At the 
wo'st' 1 would have been better in this place. "Give me 
here John Baptist's head." There would have been more 
dignity in saying. "John the Baptist's head :" or. "The 
head of John the Baptist " 



The article the has sometimes a gocd eflect in distin- 
guishing a person by an epithet. "ir> ihe history of Henry 
the fourth, by Father I). ante}, we are surprised at not find- 
ing him the great man." 'I own I am often surprised thai 
he should have treated so coldly^ a man so much the gen- 
ileman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of 
ihe French, for the pronoun possessive ; as "He looks 
him full iu the face ;" that is, "in his face." "In his 
presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground;' 7 
IhM is, I'thciff&rcluaiky 

We somet iiiies according to the French manner, repeat 
the same article when the adj* ctive, on account of any 
clause depending upon it. is put after-the substantive. "Of 
all the considerable eover ji merits ar»o»g the Alps, a com- 
monwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the 
poverty of tfeose countries." "With such a specious title 
as that *>f blood, which with the multitude is always a 
claim the strongest, and ihe most easUy comprehended/' 
"They are not the men in the nation, the most difficult to 
be replaced." 



14 



engmsh grammar. (Rule TO 

RULE X. 
One substantive goyerns another signifying 
a different thing, in the possessive or genitive 
case : as, "My father's house ■;" i4 Maii ? s hap- 
piness ;" " Virtue's reward." 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing 
as the first there is no variation of case / as, George, 
king of Great Britain, elector of Hanover," &c. ; "Pom- 
pey contended with Ca?sar, the greatest general of his 
time;' 5 'Religion, the support of adversity, adorns pros- 
perity." Nouns thus circumstanced are said to he in ap- 
position to each other. The interposition of a relative 
and verb will sometimes break the construction : as, 
"Pompey contended with Caesar, who was the greatest 
general of his time." Here the word general "is in the 
nominative case, governed by note I. under rule xi. 

The preposition ^f joined to a substantive, is not always 
equivalent to the possessive case. It isonly so when the 
expression can be converted into the regular form of the 
possessive case. We can say, 'The reward of virtue," 
and "Virtue's reward ;" but though it is proper to say, 
"A crown of gold,"' we cannot convert the expression in- 
to the possessivexase, and say, 4 Goid ? s crown." 

Substantives govern pronouns as we!! as nouns, in the 
possessive case : as, "Every tree is known by its fruit.;" 
"Goodness brings its reward ;" ^That desk is mine." 

The genitive -its is often improperly used for '*tis or it is: 
as, "Us my book:" instead of "It is my book." 

The pronoun his, when detached A\ dm .the noun to which 
it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive' pronoun, 
but as ihe genitive case of the persona! pronoun: as, 
"This composition is fefe" "Whose book is that ?" "HisP 
If we used the noun itself, we should say, "This compo- 
sition is John's." "Whose book is that?" "Eliza's.*' 
The position will be still more evident, when we consi- 
der that both the pronouns in the following sentences 
.must have a similar construction : "Js it her or his honour 
that is tarnished '/ it is not hers, bin Sfo." 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive 
ease stands alotre, the hitter one by which it is governed 



:; 



Rule 1. SYNTAX. 15$ 

being; understood : as. 'I called at the booksellers', that 
is, k at the bookseller's shop.'' 

1. If several nouns come together in the genitive case, 
the apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and under- 
stood to the rest : as. 'John and Eliza's books;] ( This 
was my father, mother, and uncle's advice.' But when 
any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increas- 
ed pause, the sign of the possessive should he annexed to 
each : as, 'They are John s as well as Eliza's books y 
*i had the jrbysician's, the surgeon's, and the apothe- 
cary's assistance.' 

2. In poetry, (he additional s is frequently omitted, but 
the apostrophe retained, ia the same manner as in sub- 
stantives in the plural number ending in s: as "The 
wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in 
yrose; which the following erroneous examples will de- 
monstrate: -Moses' minister ;"' Phinehas' wife;" Fes- 
tus came into Felix' room." "These answers were made 
to the witness' questions." But in cases which would 
give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the diffi- 
culty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even in 
prose ; as, a For righteousness' sake ;" For conscience r 
sake.- 7 

3. Little explanatory circumstanc e are particularly 
awkward between a genitive case, and the word which 
usually follows it ; as, 'She began to extol the farmer's, 
as »he cal!«d him, excellent- understanding."' It ought 
to be, "the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she 
Galled him." 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name 
r and an office, or any expression by which one part is 

descriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion 
some doubt to wbich of them the si>jn of the genitive case 
should be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to 
thern both. Thus, some would say ; 'I left the parcel at 
Smith's (he bookseller ;' others, at KSmith the booksel- 
lers:' and -perhaps, others,. "at Smith's the booksellers." A 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English 
idiom ; and if the addition consists of two or more words, 
I the case seems to be less dubious: as, I left the parcel 
' at Smith's the bookseller and stationer.' But as this 
subject requires a little further explanation to make it in- 



160 BtfSfcLl&lX GRAMMAR. (Rule 1$* 

teUigible to the learners, we shall add a few observations 
tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and de- 
pendent^ as to admit of no pause before (he conclusion,, 
necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the ,end 
of the phrase : a?. 'Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king 
of Great Britain's;' 'That is the duke of Brid^ewaterV 
eaird ;' 'The bishop of LandafPs excellent book;' 'The 
lord rcnyor of London** authority;' 'The captain of the. 
guards house.' l 

When words hi apposition follow each other in quick: 
succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to* 
give the sign of the genitive a similar situation ; especially 
if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed : as, 
'The emperor Leopold's;* 4 Dionysin& the tyrant's;' 
'For David my servant's sake;' ; Glve me John the 
Baptist's head;' 'Paul the apostle's advice.' But when 
a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed; 
and when the latter part of the sentence is extended; it 
appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied to 
the first genitive, and understood to the other: as, 'I re- 
side at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor ; r 
4 Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated C&sar's, the 
greatest general of antiquity.' In the following sentences, 
it would be very rSkward to place the sign, either at the 
end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one 
alone : 'These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and 
prophet of the Jewish people; 5 k We staid a month at 
lord LyttletonV the ornament of his country, and the 
friend of every virtue.' The sign of the genitive case 
may very properly be understood at the end of these 
members, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being 
a common construction in our language ; as the learner 
will see by one or two examples • :. -They wished to sub- 
mit, but he did not ;' that is, fe he did not rvish to submit ; r 
'He said it was their concern, but not his;' that is, 'not 
his concern.' 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of. the last 
clause onl v, we shall perceive that a resting place is want- 
ed, ami that the connecting circumstance i3 placed too re- 
motely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable : as, 
^Whose Hory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesa»% 



Halt 10.) MTNTAX.- 161 

the greatest general of antiquity" s ;' 'These psalms are 
David, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish peo- 
piehS It is much better to say, 'This is Paul's advice, 
the christian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles, 1 
than, 'This is Paul the christian hero, and great apostle 
of the gentiles'* advice.' On the other hand, the applica- 
tion of i he genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in ap- 
position, would be generally harsh tend displeasing, and 
perhaps in some cases incorrect : as, 'The emperor's 
Leopold's ;' 'King's George's ;' 'Charles the second's ;V 
'The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and sta- 
tioner's^ The rules which we have endeavoured to elu- 
cidate, will prevent the inconvenience of both these 
modes of expression ; ami they appear to be simple, per- 
spicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the language. 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound; 
so that we daily make more use of the particle of to ex- 
press the same relation. There is something awkward 
in the following sentences in which this method has not 
been taken. "The general, in the army's name, publish- 
ed a declaration." 'The commons' vote." "The lords' 
house.'* "Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's 
condition. 5 ' It were certainly better to say, In the name 
of the army;" "The vote of the commons;" "The 
house of lords;" "The condition of the kingdom." It is 
also rather harsh to use two English genitives with the 
same substantive : as, ''Whom he acquainted with the 
pope's and the king's pleasure." "The pleasure of the 
pope and the king," would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent 
on one another, and connected by the preposition reappli- 
ed to each of them : as, "The severity of the distress of 
the son of the king, touched the nation;" but this mode 
of expression is not to be recommended. It would be bet- 
ter to say "The severe distress of the king's son. touch- 
ed the nation." We have a striking instance of this labo- 
rious mode of expression, in the followiug sentence : "O/* 
some e/the books of each of these classes of literature, it- 
catalogue will be given at the end of the work," 

In some cases, we use both the genitive termination 
and the preposition of: as, 'It is a discovery of Sir Isaac 
jKewton's." Sometimes indeed, unless wt auc w tWseti£ 
14* 



ErXGLlSIX GIIAMMA?,. (&& 



cessa- 



tence into another form, this method is absolutely necessa- 
ry, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea 
of properly, strictly so c died, which is the most important 
of the relations expressed by (he genitive case : for the ex- 
pressions, "This picture of my blend /' and c This picture 
of my friend's, '•' 'suggest very d-ioVrenHdeas. The latter 
only is that of property in the strictest sense. The idea 
would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by say- 
ing, "This piciure belonging. to my friend/* 

When this double. genitive, as some grammarians term 
it, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially 
in a grave style, H is generally omitted. Except to pre- 
vent ambiguity, jt seems to be allowable only in cases 
which suppose the -existence of a plurality of subjects of 
the same kind. In the expressions, 'A subject of the 
emperor's;' 'a sentiment of my brother's ;' more than one 
subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to 
the possessor. But when this plurality is neither iati- 
maled,. nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive/ 
except as before mentioned, should not be used : a?, 
^Tliis house of the governor is very commodious; 1 'The 
crown of the king was stolen;' 'That privilege of the 
scholar was never abused.' (See page >3.) But after 
all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is term- 
ed, some grammarians/ think that it would be better to 
avoid the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment 
another form of expression 

7. When an ent?re clause of a sentence, beginning 
with a participle of the present tense, is used as one 
name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun 
©n which it depends may be put in the genitive case ; 
thus, instead of saying, 'What is the reason of this per- 
son dismissing his servant so hastily V that is, "What is 
the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so 
hastily V we may say, and perhaps ought to say, 'What 
is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so 
hastiiv?' Just as we say, 'What is the reason of this 
person's histy dismission of his servant ?' So also, we 
say, 'I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;' or 
more oroperly, 'I remember its being reckoned, 9 &e. The 
following sentence is correct and proper: 'Much Mill 
depend on the pupiPs composing, but more on his rcaift'ig 



I Rule M.V s\t; tax. 163- 

■ frequently/ It would not be accurate to &iy/, 'Much v,i\\ 
depend on the pupil composing,' ' & :c. We also properly 
say, 'This will be (be effect of the pipit's composing fre- 
quently;" instead of, 'cftke pvpil ecinpodng frequently." 

RULE XT 
Active verbs govern -the objective case : a?,* 
<>Truth ennobles /zer ;V "She comforts me f?* 
"They support: m.fl "Virtue, rewards her 
followers" 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, 
j usually goes before ill 3 verb ; and the objective case, 
denoting the object, follows the verb active; and it is ; 
the order that determines the cage in nouns ; as, 'Alex- 
ander conquered the Persians. 5 Bat the pronoun, having 
a prober form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when 
it is in the objective case, placed before the verb; and, 
when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and 
verb; as, "lVho-m ye ignorantly worship, him declare I 
unto yon. 5 ' 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its 
proper case and government to be neglected : as in the 
following instances : 'Who should I esteem more than 
the wise and good V ''By the character of those who you 
choose for }~our friends, your own is likely to be formed. r 
'Those are the persons who he thought true to his inte- 
rests.' 'Who should I see the other day hut my old 
friend. 5 'Whosoever the court favours,' In all these 
places it ought to be whom, the relative being governed 
in the objective case by the verbs 'esteem, choose, 
ihought, 5 &c. 'lie, who under ail proper circumstances, 
has the boldness to rpeak truth, choose for thy friend ;• v 
It should be him who,' &e, 

Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern; nouns and 
pronouns. . 'Re sleeps ; they muse? &c. are not transi- 
tive. They are, therefore, not followed by an objective 
\ case, specifying the object of an action. But when this 
\ case, or an object, of action, comes after such verbs,, 
| though it may carry the appearance of being governed by 
| them, it is affected by a preposition or some other word 
\ understood ; as, 'He resided many years [that Ls, for or . 



1ST ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 11. 

during many years] in that street;' 'He rode several 
miles [that is, for or through the space of several miles] 
on that day ;' He lay an hour [that is, during an hour] 
in great torture.' In the phrases, 'To (irentii a dieauij' 
'To live a virtuous life,'.' 'To run a ratey -To walk the 
horse,' 'To clan ee the child/ the verbs certainly assume 
a transitive form and may not, in the&e eases; be UoipfOr 
perly denominated transitive verbs, 

1. Some writers, however, use certain ineuter verbs as-- 
if they were transitive, p titling after them th* objective 
case, agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal 
verbs; but tills custom is so foreign to the idiom of the 
English tongue, that it ought not. to be adopted or imita- 
ted. Che following are some instances of {his practice. 
'Repenting him of his design.' 'The king soon found 
reason to repent him of his provoking -such dangerous 
enemies.' 'The popular lords did not fail to enlarge 
themselves on the subject.' 'The nearer his successes 
approacktd h'un to the throne.' *Gg flee thee away inta 
the land of Judah.' *V think it By no means* a fit and- 
decent : thing to vie charities,' &c. L They have spent 
their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the 
profane chronology.' 

2. Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made 
neuter; as, Tmust premise with three circumstances. 5 
'Those that think to ingratiate with him by calumniating; 
me.' 

3. The neuter verb is varied like the active; but, 
having in some degree the nature of the passive, it ad- 
mits, in many instances, of the passive foim ? retaining 
stili the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as sig- 
nify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition : 
as. 'I am come ; I was gone ; lam grown ; 1 was fallen.' 
The following examples, however, appear to be errone- 
ous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive forms instead 
of an active one. 'The rule of our holy religion, from 
which we are infinitely swerved? 'The whole obligation 
of that law and covenant was also ceasrd? <Wh#ee num- 
ber .was now amounted to three hundred.' * This mares* 
fchal. upon some discontent, was entered into a conspiracy 
against his master- 'At. the ead of a campaign, wbeifc* 



R 



ule 11.) SVNTAX. 163 

half the men are deserted or killed.' It should be, *have 
swerved, had ceased,' &e. 

4. The verb to be, through all i<3 variations, has the 
came case after it, as that which next precedes \\H H am 
Jie whom Ihey invited ? 'It may he (or might have been) 
he., but it cannot be (or couid not have been) If 'It is 
impossible to be they ;* "It seems to have been he, who 
conducted himself so wisely ;' 'It appeared to be she that 
transacted the business; 7 l I understood it to be him i l 
believe rt to have been them; 'We at first took it to be 
her ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she? 
c He is not the person who it seemed he was.' 'She is 
not now the woman whom they represented her to have 
been.' Whom do you fancy him to-be?* By these ex- 
amples, it appears that this substantive verb has no gov- 
ernment of case, but serves, in all its form?, as a con- 
ductor to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the 
construction of the sentence, are the next before and after 
it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be 
more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that the 
words in the cases preceding and following the verb to 
he, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, 
in the sentence, 'I understood it to be him,' the word* it 
and him are in apposition ; that i&, 'ihey refer to the same 
Jhing, and are in the same ease.* 
\ The following sentences contain deviations from the 
rule, and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : 'it might 
have been him, but there is no proof of it ^^ 'Though I 
was blamed, it could not have been me/ 'I saw one 
* whom I took to be she? 'She is the person who I under- 
stood it have been;' "Who do you think me to bet 1 
Whom do men say that I am ? 'And whom think ye that 

1 am V See the Octavo Grammar. 

Passive verbs which signify naming, &c. have the same 
sase before and after them: as r u He was called Caesar; 
v She was mmed Penelope ; Homer is sty led the prince of 
{ poets; James was created* a duke; The general was sa- 
k luted emperor: The professor was appointed tutor to 
I the prinne," 

j} 5. The auxiliary /r£ governs the objective case : as, 
f"Let him beware;" "Let us judge candidly;" «Le{ 
'them not presume f "Let George study his lesson." 



lou ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 12, 

RULE XII 

One verb governs another that follows it, or 
depends upon it. in the infinitive mood : as, 
4 'C.ease to do evil ; learn to do well." ^We 
should be prepared to render an account of 
our actions/' 

The p reposition fo 9 though generally used 
before the latter verb, is aos-iieriines properly 
omlUed : as r '*i heard, hiin say it ;" instead of 
''to say it." 

The verl.s which have commonly other verbs following 
them in the infinitive inood, without the si^n to. aie Bid, 
dare, need, make, see hrwc. fee! ; and also let, not used 
; as an auxiliary ; and perhaps a few others : as, l i bade 
him do it ;" w Ye dare not do if-;'; 'I saw him do it ;' 'I 
heard him say it;' c Thou leflest him go.' 

1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of 
the infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by lfcalie 
characters, is superfluous and improper. M have observ- 
ed some satirists to use.' &c. * To ?e« so many to make 
so little conscience of so great a sin.' v It cannot hut be 
a delightful spectacle to God and angels, to see a young ! 
person, besieged by powerful temptations rm every $MJm 
to acquit himself gloriously, and resoiutely 4o hold off 
against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in the 
prime and flower of his age, that is cdffrted by pleasures 
and honours, by the devil, and all the bewitching vanities 
of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly 
unto God. 5 

This mood has also been improperly used in the follows 
ing places : 4 i am not like other men, to envy the talents 
I cannot reach/ 'Grammarians have denied, or at least 
doubted, them to be genuine;' 'that all our doings may 
be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is 
righteous in thy sight/ 



The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, . 
substantives, and participles ; as, 'He is eager to learn;' I 
♦She is worthy to be loved ;' 'They have a desire to iaiT 
grove;' 'Endeavouring to persuade.' 



Kule 13.) syntax. 167 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a sub- 
stantive, expressing .the action itself which the verb sig- 
nifies, as the participle has the nf\twre\of an adjective. 
Thus the infinitive mood does the office'^ a substantive 
in different cases : in the nominative ; fas\<To ? >7/i/ is 
pleasant; 1 in the objective; as, 'Boys lotfe twyld}/.;' k For 
to will is present with me; but to perform that \whjeh is 
igoocl I find not.' 

The infinitive mood is often made aHso;Jute v or Kcd in- 
dependently on the rest of the sentence su^ ; -""'"'b ' 
place of the conjunction that with the potential mood: 
as, 'To confess the truth, , I was in fault ? 'To begin with ^ 
the first;' 'To proceed;" b To conclude ;' that is, 'That I i* t 
jnay confess,' &e. 

RULE XIII. 

In the use of words and phrases which, In 
point of time, relate to each other, a due regard 
to that relation should be* observed. instead 
of saying, "The 3Lord hath given, and the 
Lord hath taken away ?' we should say, 
"The Lord gave:, and the Lord hath taken 
'away." Ins'ead of, "I remember the family 
more than twenty years: 9 " it should he, "I 
have remembered the family more than twenty 
jjjpars." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the manage- 
ment of the moods and .tenses of verbs wjth respect to 
one another, so that they may be proper and consistent. 
The best rule that can he give a, *s trig very general one : 
'To observe what the sense necessarily requires.' It 
may, however, he of use to give a few examples of irre- 
gular construction. 'The last week 1 intended to have - 
, written? is a very common phrase; the ■'hifitiitiye being in 
the past time, as well as the verb which if follows. But. 
t is certainly wrong: for how long soever it now is sine* 

thought of writing, 'to write' \\<s then present ta 
e, and must stilt be considered as present, when i bring 
Jack that time, and the thoughts of it It ought therefore, 
JO be, 'The last week I intended to write? The follow- 



im ENGLISH GRAMMA*. (Rule 1 S« 

ihg sentences are also erroneous : <I cannot excuse the 
remissness of those whore business if should have been, 
as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their 
good offices.' 'There weie two circumstances which 
made it necessary for ihtrri to have led no time.'. 'Histo- 
ry painters would have found it difficult to have invented 
fucli a species of beings.' They ought to he, '/o inter- 
pose* to lose, to invent.' ^On the morrow, because he 
should have known the certainty, wherefore he was ac- 
^useefdf * ifhe Jews, he loosed him*' It ought to be, ; be~ 
cause he would knew, or rather, 'being willing to IcnowJ 
( - 'The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might re- 
ceive my feigb't? 'If by any means I might attain unto 
(he resurrection of the dead ;' 'mat/,' in both places, 
would have been better. 'From his biblical knowledge, 
be appears to study the Scriptures with great attention;' 
*to have studied? &e. '] feared that 1 should liave lost 
it, before I arrived at the city, 3 'should lose itS l I 
had rather wjalkf it should he, 'J would rv-hev walk, 
^li would have afforded me no satisfaction if I could 
perform it :' it should be, if i could haue perTqimeej it ;' 
or. Ml would hff'crd me no satisfaction, if 1 could per- 
form \i? 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must 
recollect that, in the subjunc .live mood, the present and 
imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense; 
and that the auxiliaries should and weidd, in the imperfect 
times, are used to express the present and future as wen 
as the past : for which see page 77, 

I. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the in- 
fudtive mood in {ha following form; 'to write, 5 Mo be 
writing,' and 'to lie written.' always denote something 
contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or sub?. 
sequrni to it : but when verbs of that- mood are expressed 
?s bilovs; ^To have been writing,' *to have written,' 
^nd 'to have been written, 5 rbey always denote some- 
thing antecedent to the tune of the governing verb, 'ibis 
runark is thought to be of Importance ; for if duly at- 
t iiited to, it wiii, in most ti&$H, be sufficient fo direct us 
in \hv relative application of these teases 

Tfu following sentence is properly and analogically 
expitgsejd: 'i found him better than I exnected to find 



Rule 13.) syntax. Id* 

him.' 'Expected to have found him,' is irreconcilable 
alike to grammar an J to sense, indeed, ail verbs ex- 
pressive of hone, desire, intention or command, must 
invariably be followed by the presents and not the per- 
fect of tbe infinitive. Every person would perceive an 
error in this expression ; It is long since I eommaodecl 
him to have done it ; v Vet, expecied to have founds is 
no better. It is as clear thai th ■ must be poste- 

rior to the expectation as that the obedience must be pos- 
terior tome command. 

In the sentence which fallows the verbis with propri- 
ety put in tbe perfect tense of the infiuitive mood; 'It 
w uui have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I re- 
flected upon it, to have betii the messenger of such intel- 
ligence." As tbe message, in this instance, was antece- 
A\e lX \ to the pleasure, and not contemporary with it, the 
verb expressive of the message must denote that ante- 
cedence, by being in the perrV.ct of the mfiiHtive. If the 
message and ihe pleasure had been referred to as con- 
temporary, the subsequent verb would, 'with equal pro- 
priety, have been put in the present of the inn n dive : as, 
"It would have afibrded me great -pleasure, to be the 
messenger of such intelligence." la the farmer instance, 
ihe phrase in question is equivalent to these words; % Jf 
1 had teen the messenger:* in (he latter instance, to ibis 
expression; Bring the messenger. 5 — For a further dis- 
cussion of this subject, see the Eleventh edition of the 
Key to the Exercises, p, 80, and ihe Octavo Grammar, 
atJLE xjn. 

It is proper to inform the learner, that in order to ex- 
• press the p^si time with the defective verb cvght, the 
perfect of the infinitive must always be used : "as, 4 He 
tojight to have done it.'' When we use this tern, this is 
ihe only possible way to distinguish the past from the 
present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, 
we can produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; 
Rampngst whom are Lowth and Campbell. Bui there are 
[ some writers on grammar, who strenuously maintain, that 
| the governed verb in the infinitive ougir to be in tbe past 
|b nse, v. hi n ihe vero which governs it. is in the past -imo. 
KTnoi^b ibis cannot be admitted, in the instances which 
13 



"i?G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule IS, 

a,re controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a 
similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many 
cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the go- 
verning verb, it would he proper and allowable. We may 
say; 'From a conversation I once had with him, he ap- 
peared to have studied Homer with grear care and judg- 
ment.' It would be proper also to say, 'From his ^con- 
versation, he appears to have studied Homer with great 
care and judgment. ;' 'That unhappy man is supposed to 
have died hy violence.' These examples are not only 
consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate 
it. It is the tense of the governing verb only, that 
marks what is called the absolute time ; the tense of the 
verb governed,, marks solely its relative time with respect 
to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infini- 
tive mood have no tenses, no relative distinctions of pre- 
sent, past, and future, is inconsistent with just grammati- 
cal views of the subject. That these ve rhs associate 
with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having 
no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the go- 
verning verb assumes, whether present, past* or future, 
the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that 
period, and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the 
time of the infinitive may be before after, or the same 
as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing 
signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or 
present with the thing denoted by the governing verb. 
It is. therefore, with great propriety, that tenses are as- 
signed to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of 
time from which they are computed, is of no consequence ; 
since present, past, and future, are completely applicable 
to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by 
remarking, that though it is often proper to use the per- 
fect of the infinitive .tfter the governing verb, yet there 
lire particular cases, in which it would be better to give 
the expression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, 
c l wish to have written to bim sooner,' 'I (hen wished to 
have written to him sooner,' 'He will one day wish to 
have written sooner ;' it would be more perspicuous and 
forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of good 



Rule 14.) stNTAX. "' * \*jT' A Ml 

■writers, to say, C I wish that I had written io^iftf sooner/ 
*I then wished that I had written to him sooner,' 
c He will one day wish that he had written sooner.'— 
Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there 
would still be numerous occasions tor the use of the past 
infinitive ; as we may perceive by a few examples. 'It 
would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure, to 
have found him wise and virtuous. 5 'To have deferred 
his repentance longer, would have disqualified him for 
repenting at all.' 4 They will then see, that to have 
faithfully performed their duty, would have been their 
greatest consolation.'* 

RULE xrv. 
Participles liave the same government as the* 
verbs have from which they are derived : as^ 
"I am weary with hearing him ; She is in* 
structing us; The tutor is admonishing 
Charles:' 

1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article; 
for the present participle, with the definite article the be- 
fore it, becomes a substantive, and must have the prepo- 
sition of after if: as, -'These are the rules of grammar, 
by the observing of which, you may avoid mistakes." It 
would not be proper to say, 'by the observing which \ A 
Dor, by observing of which;" but the phrase, without 
either article or preposition, would be right: as, * 4 by 
observing which." The article t* or an, has the same ef- 
fect: as -This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him.' 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our lan- 
guage, and from as plain a principle as any on which it is 
founded; namely, that a word which has the article be- 
fore it, and the possessive preposition of after it must be 
a noun : and if a noun, it ought to follow the construc- 
tion of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. 
It is the participial termination of this sort of words that 
is apt to deceive us, and make U3 treat thtm as if they 
were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly 
verbs. 

V * See Key to the English Exercises, Eleventh Edit. Rule si& 

The Note, ' 



172 ^^ ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. ("Rule 14. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of 
this rule. "He was sent to prepare the way by preach- 
ing of repentance;" it ought to be, "by the preaching 
of repentance;" or, "by preaching repentance." "By 
the continual mortifying our corrupt affections ;" it should 
be, "by the continual mortifying ef* or, 'by continual- 
ly mortifying our corrupt affections ." kW They laid out 
themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good 
of it;" "towards advancing and promoting the good." 
"It is an overvaluiig ourselves, to reduce every thing to 
the narrow measure of our capacities;" "it is overvaluing 
ourselves,' or, 'an overvaluing cf ourselves.' "Keeping 
of one day in seven," '&c. : it ought to be, "the keeping 
of one day ;" or, "keeping one ilay^ 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present par- 
ticiple and the possessive preposition follows it. will not, 
in every instance, cenvey the same meaning as would 
be conveyed by the participle without the article and pre- 
position. "Fie expressed the pleasure he had in the 
hearing of the philosopher," is capable of a different sense 
from, "Be expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the 
philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake 
of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phrase- 
ologies for the other, we should previously consider whe- 
ther they are perfectly similar in the sentiments they 
convey. 

2. The same observations which have been made re- 
specting the effect of the article and participle, appear to 
be applicable to the pronoun and participle, when they 
are similarly associated: as, 'Much depends on their ob- 
serving of the rule, and error will be the consequence of 
their vegLcting -e/it," instead of "their observing the rule,, 
and their neglecting it." We shall perceive this more 
clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun: as, 
"Much depends upon Tyrch observing of the rule." &c. 
But, as this construction sounds rather harshly, it would, 
in general, be better to express the sentiment in the fol- 
lowing, or some other forrn : "Much drpends on the 
mMs being observed ; and error will be the consequence 
of Us being neglected T or — "on observing the rule ; and — - 
of neglecting it" This remark may be applied to seve- 
ral other modes of expression to be fouudia. this work .j; 



Rule 15.) syntax. 175* 

which, though they are contended for as strictly correct, 
are not always the most eligible, on account of their un- 
pleasant sound. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the fol- 
lowing: "In forming of his sentences, he was very ex- 
act;" "From calling if names, he proceeded to blows." 
But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, 
like articles and pronouns, convert the participle itself 
into the nature of a substantive; as we have s4iown above 
in the phrase, "By observing which. "And yet the par- 
ticiple with its adjuncts, may be considered as a suhstan- 
tive phrase in the objective ca*e. governed by the prepo- 
sition or verb, expressed or understood : as, -'By pro- 
mising much, and performing but little, we become despi- 
cable." "He studied to avoid expressing himself too ser- 
ver ely" 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are 
sometimes different in their form, care must be taken 
that they be not indiscriminate \y used. It is frequently 
said, " He begun," for "he began ;" "he run," for "he 
ran;" "He drunk," for "he drank ;" the participle being 
here used instead of the imperfect tense: and much 
more freo 4 uently the imperfect tense instead of the parti- 
ciple : as, "I had wrote." for t; I had written :" "1 was 
chose," for "r was chosen ;" ""I have eat," for, "I have 
eaten." ; <His words were interwove with sighs:" "were 
interwoven." "He would have spoke;" "spoken." "He 
hath bore witness to his faithful servants ;" "borne? "By 
this means he over-run his guide;" "over-ran." "The 
sun has rose;" "risen.'* "Bis constitution has been 
greatly shook, but his mrhd is too strong to be shook by 
such causes;" 'shaken? in both places. 4 Th^y were 
verses wrote on glass; 5 'written.' 'Philosophers have 
often mistook the source of true happiness ;> it ought to 
be 'mistaken.'* 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly con- 
tracted by changing ed into t; as, 'In good behaviour,, 
he is not surpast by any pupil of the school ' "-he was 
much distresV They on^ht to be 'surpassed? 'distressed? 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though thev haye no government 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 15; 

of case, tense, &c. require an appropriate 'situ- 
ation in the sentence, viz. for the most part, 
before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, 
and frequently between the auxiliary and the 
verb : as> "He made a very sensible discourse; 
hs spoke unaffectedly i\u<\jorcibly< and was at- 
tentively heard by the whole assembly." 

A few instances of 'erroneous-positions -of adverbs ma 
serve lo illustrate the ru«e. L He must not expect. to find 
study agreeable always;' 'always agreea? le. r ( We al- 
ways find them ready when we want them ; r ^we find 
them always renCiy, 7 &c- "Dissertations on the prophe- 
cies which have remarkably been fulfil led ( ; 'which have 
been remarkably/ 'Instead of looking contemptuously 
down on the crooked in mind or in body we should look 
up thankfully to God, who hath made us better ;' instead 
of looking down contemptuously* &c. we should thank- 
fully look up.' &c.-. 'If thou art blessed naturally with a 
good memory, continually exercise it y 'naturally bless- 
edy &c. exercise it continually/ 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before 
the verb, or at some distance after it; sometimes be- 
tween the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes after tlum 
both ; as in the following examples. 'Vice always creeps 
bv degrees, and insensibly twines around us (hose con- 
cealed fetters, by which we are at last completely bound. 5 
'He encouraged the English Barons to carry their oppo- 
sition farther.' 'They compelled him to declare that he 
would abjure the realm forever f instead of, 'to carry 




.„ may always 

to 'has been generally;' and 'may be always.' 'These 
rules will be clearly understood, after they have been di- 
ligently studied, 9 are preferable to, 'These rules will 
clearly be understood, after they have diligently been 
studied.' 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears 
that no exact and determinate rule can be given for the 
Placing of adverbs, ©a all occasion^. The general rote* 



Riile 15.) syntax, 11 tf 

may be of considerable use; but the easy flow and per- 
spicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be 
chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often use.] as an expletive, or as 
a word that adds nothing to the sense; in which case it 
1 precedes the verb and the nominative noun : as, 'There 
is a person at the door; 1 There are some thieves in the 
house;' which would be a3 well, or better, expressed by 
saying, ; A person is at the door; 5 'Some thieves are in 
the house.' Sometimes, it is made ti3e of to give a small 
degree of emphasis to the sentence : as, 'There was a 
man sent from God. whose name Was John.* When it is 
applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb 
and the nominative case : as, 'The man stands there? 

1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, 
*I never was there ;'- 'lie never comes at a proper time. 5 
When an auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferently, ei- 
ther before or after this adverb : as, "He was never seen, 
(or never Wiis set n) to laugh from thatlime. 5 

Never seems to be improperly used in the following 
passages. 'Ask me never &o much dowry and gift. 5 *}f 
I make my hands never &o clean ' fc Cbarm he never so 
wisely.' The word ewr would be more suitable to the 
sense. 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of 
place where, is often used instead of (he pronoun relative 
and a preposition. 'They framed a protestation, where 
they repeated all their former claims ;' i.e. Hit which they 
repeated. 5 The king was still determined to run for-- 

'• wards in the same course where lie was already, by his 
precipitate career, too fatally advanced ;' i. e, Hn which 
he was.' But it would be better to avoid this mode of" 
expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a prepo- 
sition ; for they signify, 'from this place, from that place, 
from what place. 5 It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, 
to he improper to join a preposition with them because 
" is superfluous : as, 'This is the leviathan, from whence 

e wits of our age are said to borrow their weapons;' 
An ancient author prophesies from hence.' But the 

igitt of these words is little attended to, and the prepo- 



W$ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 1& 

miion front so often used in construction with them, that 
the omission of it, in many eases, would seem stiff, and 
be disagreeable. 

The atlverbs /i£7¥, there, where, are often improperly 
applied to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs 
hither y thither ywhilhcr : as 'He caraefen hastily ;' v They 
rode there with --speed.'' They should bey, 'He came 7ii- 
ther ;?. 'They rode thither J Szc. 

3. We have some examples of adverts being used for 
substantives.- <ln 1687, he erected it into a community 
of regulars, -Mnce when, it has begun to increase in those 
countries ..s a religious order ;' r a since which time." *A 
Httfe while and I sttaB not see you ; ? i. e. %. short time/ 
'It is vvortk their while; 1 i. e. <?t deserves their time and' 
pains/ But this use of the word rather suits familiar than, 
grave style. The same may be said of the phrase, 'To- 
do a thing anyhow? i.e. 'in any manner ;' or, 'some- 
Jigw ;] i. e. w in some manner ? 'Somehow, worthy as' 
these people are, they are under the influence of preju- 
dice. 1 

rule xyr. 

Two negatives., in English, destroy one ano- 
ther, or are equivalent to an affirmative-: as^ 
"JS'or dlil they not perceive him ;" that is r 
"they did perceive him. ,r a HSs language, 
though inelegant,, is not ungrctmmatical /" that 
is, "it m grammatical/' 1 

It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affir- 
mative, than by two separate negatives, as in the former 
sentence: but when one of the negatives is joined to 
another word, as in the latter sentence the two negative*" 
form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression 

Some writers have improperly employed two nega- 
tives instead of one ; as in the following instances: 'I 
never did repent of doing good! nor shall not/now ^ 'nor 
shall I nowf 'Never no imitator grew up to his author : r 
*hever did any. &C C I cannot by no means allow him 
what his argument must prove; I cannot by any means,'* 
$&or ? , 'I can by no means/ *$or let no comforter aft- 



Rule 17.) syntax. 177 

proach me;' c nor let any comforter * &c. 'Nor is (laa- 
ger ever apprehended in such a government, no more 
than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or 
earthquakes ' it should be, ^anymore? 'Ariosto. Tasso, 
fGaliieo, no more than Raphael, were not born in repub- 
lics.' 'Neither Ariosto,. Tasso, nor Galileo, any more 
< than Raphael, was born in a republic.' 

RULE XVII. 
Prepositions govern the objective caser: agy 
i4 l have heard a good character of her f r 
{'From him that is needy turn not away ;" "A 
Word to the wise is sufficient for them ;" "We 
may be good and happy -without, riches." 

The following are examples of the nominative case 
being used instead of the objective. 'Who servest thon 
under V 'Who do you speak to V 'We are stiff much at 
at a loss who civil power belongs to:' l W ho dost thou 
ask for V 'Associate not with those who none can sneak 
well of.' In ail these places it ought to be 'whcmS See 
Note I. 

The prepositions to and for are often understood,- 
chiefly hefore the pronouns : as, *Give me the book ;' 
*Get me some paper; that is , 'to me : for me} 'ttfoia 
me;* i e. to me.' 'He was banished England ;' i.e. 
from England.' 

1. The [deposition is often separated from the relative 
which it governs : as 'Whom wilt thou give it to V in- 
stead of "To whom wilt thou give it V 'lie is an author 
whom I am mi eh delighted with ;' 'The world is too po- 
lite to shock authors with a truth, which generally fh*-ir 
booksellers ar^ the firs I that inform them of. v This is an 
idiom to which our language is strongly inclined ; it pre- 
vails in common conversation, and suits very well with 
r the familiar style in writing . but the placing of the pre- 
position hefore the relative is more graceful, as weij as 
>re perspicuous, and agrees much better with the sol- 
m and elevated style. 

2. ^ome writers separate the preposition from its noun v 
la order to connect different prepositions with the saras 



ITS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rllfe IT. 

noun : as, 'To suppose the zodiac and planets to be effi- 
cient of and antecedent to, themselves. ' This, whether 
in the frmiliar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, 
and shouid generally be avoided. In forms of law, and 
the like, where fulness and exactness of expression must 
take place M every other consideration, it may be ad- 
mitted. 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be 
expressed by different prepositions,, though in conjunction 
with the same verb or adjective. Thus we say l to con- 
verse n??!f7i a person, upon a subject, in a house-,? &c. We 
also say, 'We are disappointed of a thing.' when we cam- 
not get it, 'and disappointed in it. r when we have it, and 
find it does not answer our expectations. But two diffe- 
rent prepositions must he improper in tile sn me construc- 
tion, and in the same sentence ; as, 'The combat between 
thirty French against twenty English/ 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two 
prepositions the preference is to be given, as both are 
used promiscuously, and custom has not decided in fa- 
vour of either of them. We say, Expert at.' and expert 
in a thing." "Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes ;' 
'•Expert in deception.' 

Whea prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are 
generally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from 
which the nouns are derived : as, % A compliance with? 
*to comply with? 'A disposition to tyranny ' 'disposed to;. 
tyrannize/ 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposk 
tion is of great importance, we sh ill select a considerable 
aimiber of examples of impropriety, in the application of. 
tills part of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition qf— *He is resolved 
of going to the -Persian court ;' 'on going.' &c. Re was 
totally dependent of the Papal crown;' 'on the Papal/ 
&c. Fo call of a person,' and Ho wait of him ,' 'on a 
person 7 &c. w He was eager of recommending it to his. 
fellow eitizeus,' 'in recommending,' &c. Of is sometimes 
emitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy : as, 'it is 
worthy observation.' or, 'of observation." But it would 
feave been better omitted in the following sentences. 
*^he emulation, who should serve their country best, m 



Rule 17.) SYNTAX. 17* 

longer subsists among them, but of who should obtain the 
most lucrative command.' 'The rain hath been falling 
of a long time;' 'falling a long time.' 'It is situation 
chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of 
men;' "decides the fortune,' or, 'concemins; the fortune.* 
'lie found the greatest difficulty of writing ;' Hn writing? 
*It might have given me a greater taste of its antiqai- 
ties.' A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it; 
but a taste for it s implies -only, a capacity for enjoyment. 
'This had a much greater share of inciting him, fh^n any 
regard after his father's commands f 'share in inciting,' 
and 'regard to his father's,' &-c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and/or. — 'You 
have bestowed your favours to the most deserving per- 
sons; ' 'upon the most deserving," &c *fle accused 
the ministers for betraying the Dutch :' -of having be- 
trayed.' 'His abhorrence to that superstitious figure f 
*<f that;' &c. 'A great cha.nge to the better ;' for the 
better.' 4 iour prejudice to my cause ;' 'against? 'The 
English were very different people then to what they are 
tit present ;' from what,' <$rc. 'In compliance to the de- 
claration ;' "with? &c. ^lt is more than they thought 
for ;' 'thought of. 9 'There is no need for it;' '^ it ' For 
is superfluous in the phrase, 'More than he knows for? — 
'No discouragement for the authors to proceed ;' 'to the 
authors,' &c. it wag perfectly in compliance to some 
persons ;' 'with. 9 The wisest princes n^ed not think it 
any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their 
sufficiency, to rely upon counsel ;' 'diminution of? and 
derogation from? 

3d With resMect to the prepositions with and vpm.~ 
'Reconciling himself with the k\ug? Those things 
which have the greatest resemblance with each other, 
frequently differ the most' That such rejection should 
be consonant with our cc.rnmon nature:' 'Conformable 
with.' <£c. w The history of Peter is agreeable with the 
sacred texts. in all the above Instances, it should te 5 
'to? instead of with? it is a use that perhaps I should 
not have thought on ;' thought of? A greater quantity 
may be taken from the heap, without making my sensible 
Alteration upon it; 5 Hn it' Hntnsfed to persons oa 
SYliGHi tfae parliament could coLtide ? 'in whom.' 'lie wa$ 



ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 17. 

made much on at Argos ;' 'much of: 'If policy can pre- 
vail upon force f 'over force.' I do likewise dissent with 
the examiner;' from? 

4th 'With respect to the prepositions in, from. &c. — > 
'They should be informed in some parts of his character J 
'about: or, 'conctnt^i^ 'Upon such occasions as fell 
inio their cogmza-nee ;? itnAr.1 'That variety cl factions 
into which we are stifl engaged ;' *i» which.' 'To re- 
store myself into the favour ;" to the favour.' 'Could he 
fitve profited ir^m repeated experiences;' %.' From 
seems o be superfluous after forbear? as* He could not 
forbear from appointing the pope^ &c. 'A strict observ- 
ance liter times and f sbions ,' ^/nm,s.' ^The charac- 
ter which we may now value ourselves hy drawing ;' 
htpin drawing ' 'Neither of them shai] m tke me swerve 
out of the path;' from the path ?■ *Ye hiind guides, 
which strain at a gnat, ami swallow a camel ;' it ought to 
be. 'which strain out a goat/or take a gnat out of the li- 
quor ny straining it' The impropriety of the preposition 
has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of 
things. It cannot he properly mt(\ in conjunction with 
the word every, which is in the gi.igubr number: as, 
'Winch is found among every species t>f liberty;' fc The 
Opinion seems to gain ground am mg every body.' 

5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns ot 
place, when they follow verts and participles of moiion : 
as, '1 went to London ;' *i am going to town.' But the 
preposition at is generally ufed after the neuter verb to be: 
as. \ have been V London,;' I was at the place appoint- 
cd;' 'J shall be at Paris.' We likewise say : 'lie touch- 
ed arrived at any place. 5 The preposition w is « t be- 
fore countries, cities; and large towns: as, fc Helive a iii 
France, in London, or in Birmingham.' But betore vil- 
lages, single houses, and elites which are in distant coun- 
tries, at £&4 ; as, He lives at Hackney;' 'He resiuei 
at Montpelier. 5 ■ ., , . 

It is a matter of indifference. wihi respect to tne pro- 
noun om another, whether the preposition «/be placed 
between the two parts of it, or before them both vve 
m tv say, "They were jealous of one another ; or, I hey 
were jealous owe of another; 5 but perhaps the lormer i* 
.belter. 



Rule 18.) SYNTAX. 1B1 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions : as, ex- 
cepting, respecting, touching, concerning, according. 
*They were all in fault except or excepting him. 

RULE XVIII. 
"Conjunctions connect tlie same moods and 
tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns : as, ''Candour is to be approved and 
practised :" "If thou sincerely desire, and 
earnestly pursue virtue, she mil assuredly be 
Jound by thee, and prove a rich reward ;" 
••Tue mas er taught her and me to write *" 
i% iie and she were seiiool fellows."* 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may 
further display its utility. % II' he prefer^ virtuous iife 
and is-si^fv-re in his professions he will succeed ;" "if 
lie prefers" *f.To deride the miseries of the unhappy, 
is iniium in ; and wanting comoassion towards thera, is 
Unchristian :" * and to w'inl ^ompassiosai" "The parlia- 
m nt addressed the king, and has been prorogued the 
s ifne day ;" u itu\ was prorogued." "His wealth and 
him bid adieu to each other," %ad he?* "He entreated 
us, my comrade and i, to live harmoniously ;" "comrade 
and me.V IVIy sister and her were on good terms f "and 
she," "We often overlook the blessings which are ia 
our possession, and are searching after those which are 
out of our reach :'' it bughtste be, "and search after 1 " 

I. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to con- 
nect different moods and tenses of verbs; but in these 
instances the nominative must generally, if not always, 
be repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be 
done, under the construction to which the rule refers. 
We may say, "He lives temperately, awl he should live 
temperately ;" i Re may return, but he will not continue? 
4 She was proud though she is now humble :' but it is ob- 
vious, that in such cases, the nominative ought to be re- 

* This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the 
same bearing- or relation, with regard to other parts of the sm~ 
Brcncc, 

16 



18? ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule If. 

peated; and that, by this means, the latter memheis of 
these sentences are rendered not so strictly dependent 
on the preceding; as those are which come under the rule, 
When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the af- 
firmative to the negative form, or from the negative to 
the affirmative, the subject or nominative .is always re- 
sumed : as 'He is rich, but he is not resp^ctaiie ' 'He 
is not rich, but he is respectable: 3 ' There appears to he, 
in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and 
resuming the subject, when the course of the sentence t3 
diverted by a change of the mood or tense The follow- 
ing sentences -may therefore he improved. 'Anger glan- 
ces into the breast of a wise man, hut win rest only in 
the bosom of fools ;' 'but rests only ; or, 'hut it will rest 
only. 9 'Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired 
also, if her worth were really known ;' 'and she would.' 
'The world begins to recede, and will soon disappear ;' 
4 and it wilt.' See the Octavo Grammar, Rul.££Viii. 

RULE XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, 
some the subjunctive mood, after them it is 
a general rule, that when something contingent 
or doubtful is iinpHed, the subjunctive ought 
to be u^ed : as, '*If I were t^ w-rile, he would 
Dot regard it ;" 6 He will uot be pardoned, 
tinless he npent." 

i'onjniictions tb*at are of a positive and ab- 
solute ua *ire require the indicative rpo^d '*Jls 
virtue advances* so vice recedes:" ''He is 
Jtealthy* because he is temperate/' 

The conjunct ions,?/', though unless, excpt, whether, 
&e. :<: u ■ \ 'V require the subjunctive mood after them : 
^r / Wfflicied e ine not ? "Whmi^h lie «ft%f me* 

yrt n i r v i ; ? \iie c;tnrtoi beielean, unless he 

fv>-t$h h n& If.; 1 '-Nii power txcpi it were giveja from a- 
fjo,- ' Wh tih r it wre. ! or they, so we preaxrh. 7 But 
e e i i ieae i ■ iju;vcr?o >«, when the sentence does not 
linjiy doiij t. auaut of the indicative : us, 'Tkwgh he jfe 



Rule 19.) syntax. 183 

poor he is contented.' — See subjunctive mood. p. 70, and 
pages \ 81 188. 

Ti.e following example may, in some measure, serve 
to illustrate the distinction between the subjunctive and 
the imitative moods. 'Though he were divrtiefy' inspir- 
ed, and spoke therefore as the orach s of God, with su- 
pieme authority ; though he rvere endued with supernatur- 
al powers and could, therefore, have confirmed the truth 
of what he uttered, by miracles; yet, in compliance with 
the way in which human nature .and reasonable creatures 
are usually wrought unon. he reasoned.' That our Sav- 
iour was divinely inspired and eudued with supernatural 
powers, are positions that are here taken lor granted, as 
not admitting the least doubt ; fiiey would therefore 
have been better expressed in the indicative mood : 

... 'Though he was divinely inspired ; though he wa# endu- 
ed with supernatural papers.' The su junctive is used 

j in ihe like improper manner in the following example ; 
'Though lie tViire a son yet learned he obedience. L\ ihe 
things which he sutlVred.' But, in a similar passage^ ihe 
iu/deative, with great propriety, is employed to the same 
purpose ; Though he was rich ^ yei fur yottr sakes he be- 
came poo:.' 

I. Lsi, »\v\ that, annexed to a cnmmand preceding, 
necessarily require the subjunctive mood : as, c L6ve not 
%\e?.\). lest thou come to poverty ;' 'R. | a scorn- 

er led he hate thee? "fake heed %Utef:^- t:ot to 
Jacob*' | 

If with but following it, when futurity is denoted, re- 
quires the subjunctive mood: as, If he do bul touch the 
hills, they shall sjaoke ;' "If he be but discreet, he vlii 

| Bticceed. ? But the indicative (Might to he used, on this 
occasion, when future time is not signified : as, 'If in 
this expression, h;^ does but jest, no offence should be ta- 
ke?; f 'If she is but sincere, 1 am hap ; y. ? The same 
distinction applies to the following fornVof expression : 
*Jf her/; submit, tY will he from necessi v ;''" 'l^iougn he 
dees submit, he is not convinced;' ii thou do not reward 
this service, he wii! he discouraged ; 5 If thou dtaUrcarti- 

, }j forgive him, endeavour to forget the offence ' 

2, In the following . instances, the conjunction that. 



184 BNGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 19. 

expressed or understood, seems (o be improperly accom- 
panied with the subjunctive mood. 'So much she dread- 
ed his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not la- 
ment.' " He reasoned so artfully that his friends would 
listen and think [thaf\ he were not wrong.' 

3. The same conjunction governing both the indica- 
tive and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, 
and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great im- 
propriety : as in these instances, 'If there be but one 
body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there 
are only two, there will want a casting voice.* ^a man 
have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray,? 

4. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of 
any language, have arisen from (he ellipsis of some words, 
which were original!? inserted in the sentence, and made 
it regular; and it is probable, that this has generally been 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, 
now in use ; which will appear from the following exam- 
ples : 'We shall overtake him though he rem;' that is, 
Hhough he should run ;' 'Unless he act prudently, he wilt 
not accomplish his purpose ;' that is, 'unless he shall act 
prudently. * 'If he succeed and obtain his end, he will not 
be the happier for it ;' that is, 'If he should succeed and 
should obtain his end r These remarks and examples 
are designed to show the original of many of our present 
conjunctive forms of expression ; and to enable the stu- 
dent to examine the propriety of using them, by tracing 
the words in question to their proper origin and ancient 
connexions. But it is necessary to be more particular 
on this subject, and therefore we shall add a few obser- 
vations respecting it. 

That part of" the verb which grammarians call the pre- 
sent tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future significa- 
tion. This is effected by varying the terminations of 
the second and third persons singular of the indicative ; 
as will be evident from the following examples: If thou 
prosper, thou shouldst he thankful ;' ^Unless he study 
more closely, he will never be learned.' Some writers 
however would express these sentiments without those 
variations; 'if iSiOKpr&sperest? &e 'Unless he studies? 
&& : and as there is great diversity of mactice in tbift- 



Rale 19.) syntax. 185 

point, it is proper to offer the learners a Few remarks, to 
assist them in distinguishing the right application of these 
ililTereat forms of expression. It miy be considered as a 
rule, (hat the changes of termination are necessary when 
these two circumstances concur : 1st, When the subject 
is of a dubious and contingent nature ; and 2d, When 
the verb bis a reference to future time. In the following 
sentences, both these circumstances will be found to u- 
nite: Hrf thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself;* 1 4fe 
a hard heart; aid if he continue impenitent he must 
r;' 'He will maintain his principles, though he (se 
his estate ;' 'Wkwiher he succeed or not, his intention is 
luudaiSe ;? 'If he he not prosperous, he will n t repine ; ? 
>l\ a man smite his servant and he di<J &e. Exotf. xsh 
20. In all vhese examples, the things s-igniiivri Uy the 
verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the 
instances yvhieh follow, future time is not referred to ; and 
therefore a different const rue lion tak-s'place; w lf thou 
livest virtuously, thou art happy ;' L W*s\e8& he nieans 
what he says, h^ is -doubly faithless;* 4 ]f he allows the 
excellence of virtue, he does not regard her precepts ;' 
'Though he seems to be simple and artless, he lias de- 
ceived us ; ? ; Whether virtue is better than rank or wealih, 
admits not of any dispute ;' 'ff thou belkvest with all thy 
he.^rt, thou mayst, 5 &c Acts viii. 3?'. — There are many 
sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which noil her 
contingency nor futurity is demoted : as.. ' Flbougb he ex- 
cels her in knowledge, she fir exceeds him in virUie. 5 X 
jjw-v€ notln'ubtof his principles : but if he beUepes the 
truths of religion, he does not act .according to them ' 
| That both the circumstances of eoiitirigfu|ey zufd fulu- 
rity are necessary, as tests of the propriety of alter 
the terminations, will be evident, by inspecting the foi- 
lowins examples ; which show thai :^r are ins teneea 
in which neither of the circumstances alaae implies the 
other. In the three examples following, contingency is 
denote*! b t not futurity. *!f. he thinks as ht sneaks, he 
m jy saf iy be trusted.' 4 If he is now disposed Jo it, 1 will 
perform the operation.' 'He acts upr }ghffy^ unlt~&& hfs 
wetinves me ' In the foiiQwing sentences, futurity is 
|mut d, but not contingency. 'As soon as the suu sets, it 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 19. 

will he cooler.' 'As the autumn- advances, these birds 
will gradually emigrate.' 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced,, 
that the rules above mentioned may be extended to as- 
sert, that in cases wherein contingency and futurity do 
not concur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its sig- 
nification of present time, nor to vary its form or termina- 
tion. The verb would th^n he in the indicative mood r 
whatever conjunctions might attend it. — If these rules, 
which seem to form the true distinction between the sub- 
junctive am! the indicative moods in this tense, were 
adopted and established in practice, we should have, on 
this point, a principle of decision simple and precise, and 
readily applicable to every case that might occur.— It 
will, doubtless, sometimes happeny that r on this occasion*, 
as well as on many other occasions, a strict adherence to 
grammatical rules would render the language stiff and 
formal : but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to 
give the expression a different turn, than to violate gram- 
mar 'for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. See Rule 
14. Note 2;. 

b. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound ten- 
ses of the subjunctive mood, it seems proper to makes 
few observations. Some writers express themselves in 
the perfect tense as follows : ' K thou have determined, 
we must submit:" Unless he have consented, the writing 
will be void : r but we believe that few authors of critical 
sagacity write in this manner. The proper form seems 
to be, 'If 'thou /redetermined: unless he has consent- 
ed,' &c. conformably to what we generally meet with in 
the Bible : 'I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not 
known me> Isaiah xl v. « 5 < What is the hope of the- 
hypocrite, though he hath gained,' &c. Job xxvn. 8. See 
also Jcfsxxviii. 4. 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes* 
meet with such expressions as th*?e ; 'If thou had appli- 
ed thyself diligently, thou wouldst have reaped the ad- 
vantage ;' 'Unless thou shall s rie.nk the whole truth we 
cannot determine :' 'If thou will undertake the business, 
there is little doubt of success ' This mode of express- 
ing the auxiliaries does not apnear to be warranted by the* 

tpMWd uracil. o£ mml nMm %hei sboultl fe$ 



Rule 19.) syntax, ra? 

hadst, shalt, and wilt : and we find them used in this form 
in the sacred Scriptures* 

*If thou hadst known,'' &c. Luke xix. 47. 'Ifthou 
hadst been here,' &c. John xi. 2'U If thou nw$, thou 
eanst make me clean,' Matt viii. 2. See also, 2 Sam, *** 
27. Mtf/f. xvii. 41 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense 
in the subjunctive mood, is also very frequently varied in 
its termination : as 'lf'tbou loved him truly, thou wouldst 
obey him ;'" 'Though thou did conform, thou hast gained 
nothing by it.' This variation, however appears to be 
improper. Our present version of the Scriptures, which 
we again refer to, as a good grammatical authority in 
point* of this nature, decides against it. 'if thou knewest 
the gift.' &<T. John iv. !0. 'if thou didst receive it, why 
dost tliou glory ?'&c. i Cor. iv. 7. See also Dan. v. 22. 
But it is proper to remark, that the form of the verb to 
be, when used subjunctiVelyin the imperfect tense, is 
indeed very considerably and properly varied from that 
which it has in the imperfect of the indicative mood : as 
the learner will perceive by turning to the conjugation 
of that verb. 

8. It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the 
auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the 
subjunctive, do uot change the termination of the second 
person singular We properly s§j, "If thou mcuyst or 
canst, go*," "Though thou rnigldst live ;" '"Unless thou 
coiddst read ;" "If thou wouldst learn;"*' and not "If thou 
viay or can £oJ r &c. It is sufficient, on this point, to 
adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth : "If thou 
shmddst go ;" Johnson.. 4 I f thou maysty mightsi] or coiddst 
love;" Lowth. Some authors think-, that when that ex.* 
presses the motive or en i, the termination of these aux- 
iliaries should be varied : as, "I advise thee, that thou 
may beware ;'*' "He checked thee, that thou .should not 
presume :" but there does not appear to be any ground 
for this exception. If the expression of "condition, 
doubt, contingency," &c. does not warrant a change in? 
the form of these auxiliaries, why should they have it, 

I when a motive or end is expressed ? The translators of 
the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction 
(^tended for. KChouibuiMestthc v&% thai thou may £• 



i3B ENGLISH GRAMMAR* (Rulel9. 

be their king," Neh. vi.Nl 'There is forgiveness with 
thee that thou maysi be feared. 1 ' Psalm cxxx. 4. 

From Ihe preceding observations under this rule, it 
appears that with respect to what is termed the present 
tense of any ve/o. when ihe cjfcftrag&qces of contingency 
ant! futurity concur, it Is proper to vary ihe terminations 
of the second and third persons singer"; tli.i without 
the cpnciirre/iee of those circumstances, the terminatitois 
should not be altered ; .and that the verb ahd ihe auxilia- 
ry s of the-three pa.st'-tens^s, and the auxoiarie;S of ihe 
first future, undergo no alterations whatever: except the 
imperfect Of the verb to be, which, in eases denoting con- 
tingency is varied in all the i ergons of the singular num- 
ber.- Seepiige 84. The 2\$££ 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, 
it will be natural for f'Se student to inquire what is ihe 
extent of the subjunctive mood ? Some grammarians 
think it extends only to what is called the present tense 
of verbs generady, under the circumstances of contin- 
gency and feimity ; and to the imperfect tease of the 
verb to be, when ii denotes contingency, && ; because ip 
these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of varia- 
tion ; and they' suppose that --it is variation merely which 
Co istifiites the distinction of moods/ It is the opinion of 
on er grammnnans, (in which opinion we concur,) that, 
besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in he 
ihcee past, and the two future tenses, are in the subj ac- 
tive rn©od, v*hen they denote contingency or uncertainty, 
though they have not any change of termination^ and" 
that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, through < 
all these five tenses-, belongs to the indicate emoc-( f , w t- 
ever conjunction may attend it. They think, that the 
definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have no 
reference to change of termination but that they refer 
m, rely to ihe manner of the being;, action, or passion, 
signified by the verb; and that the subjunctive mood 
in i v as properly, exist without a variant n of the verb, ;?& 
the iiiikiitive mood, which has.no terminatmns different 
fr« : »m those of the indicative. The decision of this point 
BVy !tOt, by some grammarians, be thought of much con- 
sequence. But the rules which ascertain the propriety. 
o£ varying, or not varying, the terminations of the yerhjfr 



Rule 19.) SYNTAX. 18$ 

will certainly be deemed important. These rules may 
be well observed- without a uniformity of sentiment re- 
specting the nature and limits of the subjunctive mood. 
For further remarks on the subject* see pages 74, 78—80* 
©0—98. 102— 104.* 

9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions 
belonging to them, either expressed or understood: as, 

1st, Tliough,— yet, nevertheless : as, "Though he was 
vich, yet for our sakes he became poor." ^Though pow* 
erful, he was meek.'* 

2d, Whether — or: as, "Whether \\e will go or not, I 
#annot tell." 

3d, Either — or t as, "I will either send it, or bring it 
myself.'' 

4th, Neither — nor: a3, "Neither be nor I am able to 
eompass it." 

5th, As— as : expressing a comparison of equality : as r 
*She is as amiable as her sister ; and as much re* 
apected." 

6th, As — so : expressing a comparison of equality ; a*^. 
&As the stars, so shall thy seed be '' r 

7th, As — so : expressing a comparison of quality : as^ 

* We have stated, for the student's information, the different 
•pinions of grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive 
Mood : First, that which supposes there is no such mood in our 
language ; Secondly, that which extends it no farther than the 
variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we have 
adopted, and explained at large ;. and which;, in general, corres- 
ponds with the views of the most approved, writers on English 
Grammar.. We may add a Fourth opinion ; which appears to 
possess, at least, much plausibility. This opinion admits the 
ftp.u.ngemftnt we have gh en, with one variation, namely, that of 
•assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms; 1st, 
that which simply denotes contingency : as, "If he desirts it I 
will perform the operation :" that is,. "If he now desires it ;» 
2d!y, that which denotes hoth contingency and futurity ; as, "If 
he desire it, I will perform the operation ;" that is, "If he should 
hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood 
claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods 
consistent and regular ; of being more conformable than any 
other, to the definition of the subjunctive ; and of not referring to 

I the indicative mood forms of expression, which ill accord with its. 

gimplicity and nature.. Perhaps this theory will bear a strfclt 

f^xainiuatic?n 8 



WO BNGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule If. 

"As the one dieth, so dieth the other." "As he reads, 
they re id. 1 ' 

8ih, So — as* with a verb expressing a comparison of 
qualify : as, * To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee 
in the sanctuary." 

9th, So — as : with a negative and an adjective express- 
ing a comparison of ou intity : as, u t*pmpey was not so 
great a genera! as Caesar, nor so great a ra m.' 

soth. So — that: expressing a consequence : as, 'He 
was so fatigued, that he could scar&eiv inove. 1 

The conjunctions Of and nor may often he u«ed wHh 
nearly equici propriety. 'The king, jvhose character was 
not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive, as.^ated to the 
ineasqre.' In this sentence, or would perhaps have been 
better : but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation 
in toe former pan i>f ihe sentence, and tiereiore gives 
more em, -h isis io the expres ion. 

iO €ooj netmos are often improperly u^h}. loth singly 
and in pairs; The following are examples of his impro- 
priety Tne relations are so uncertain, as in t they re- 
quire a great deal of examination :' it should he, *tkat 
they require * &c, ^Tjjere was no man so sanguine, who 
did not apprehend some ill consequences r it ought io 
be so sanguine as not to apprehend.' &c. ; or. -j;o m n, 
how sing line s >« ver, who did not,' &c. Vq ifuM in 
hi m is no m re but to acknowledge h:s power.' 'This is 
no other but the gate of paradise^ In loth these in- 
stances, but should he tk(m. 'We should sufficiently 
weigh the objects of our hope : whether thei? are such as we 
may reasonably expect from tliem wjmi they propose,' &C* 
It ought to e, 'that we may reasonably*' &c Tne duke 
had not ehaved with that, loyalty as he ought [ havs 
done y y :viikivniek hoougbi.' In the order ♦& they lie 
in his -preface :' it should ?e, Jin order as they Ire ;' or, 
'in the order in rbMick they lie-' 'Such sharp replies ihut 
cost him his life ;' "as cost him,' &c. 'if he were truly 
thrit sea cc'ow, as he is now commonly painted;' 'such 
a scarecrow^' &c. k I wish 1 eould do that justice to his 
memo, v, to oblige the painters,' &c. ; c do sit cli justice us 
io oblige,' Sic. 

Nereis a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning 



&ule 19.) SYNTAX. If 1 

with the conjunctive form of a verb. Were th^re no dif- 
ference, there would ue no choice ' 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clause? of 
a sentence, is s mutinies made us I : as- 'had he done 
thia, he had escaped •£ Had tin li motions on the pre- 
rogative been, in his time, quiie rise i and -certain, his in- 
piegrity had made him regard assured, the boHudarii s of 
the constitution ' The seatejuee in the com non lorn 
would have read thus : k If the limitations on rhe prero- 
gative h d been, &c. his integrity would have made hioi 

The particle &s\ when it is connected with the p-onoun 
.sveh, has the force of a relative pjonouu : as, 'Lu :u-ch 
as presume to advise oiht'rs, iook well to their own con- 
duct:' whicbi* equivalent to, Let them mho presume,* 
fee But when used by itself, this partiete is to he con- 
ftdered as a. conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. See 
the Key. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar 
«y»e. equivalent to notwithstanding, The words for ail 
that, seem to be too low. 'The word was in me mouth 
of every one, but for aluhdt, the subject my still be 
a secret.' 

In r^ardfhat is solemn and antiquated ; because would 
do much better in the f blfowfng sentence. 'It canuoi be 
otherwise, in regtrd that the French prosody ditTers from 
rjjbat of every other larifuage.' 

The word except is for preferable to other than. 'If ad- 
mitted of no effectual cure otfu r than amputation; 1 Ex- 
cept is also to be preferred to all but. 'They were happy 
all but i he stranger.' 

In the two fori owing phrases, the conjunction as is im- 
properly omitted; Which noho'y presumes, oris so 
Sanguine A to hope.? 'I must however be so just 4 to 
own.' 

The conjunction that is often property omitted, and 
understood ; as, i beg you would come to ixiey 'See thou 
■o it not -j? Instead of 'that yott'would; 5 'that thou do.* 
But in the following and mnuy sitniSn'* nhr ses, this ebn- 
' netion were much better inserted : 'Yet it is reason the 
emory of their virtues rem tin to posterity.' i t should 
jet it is just that the memory,' &c. 



$9$ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 2@- 

RULE XX. 

When the qualities of different tilings are 
compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not 
governed by the conjunction than i>r as, but 
agrees with the verb or is governed by the verb 
or the preposition, expressed or understood : 
&k, ,; Tli-o art wiser than I ;" that is, <*than I 
am " «<| hey loved him more than me ;" L e. 
**tebre than they loved me/? *fTlie sentiment 
is well expressed by Plato, but much better by 
Solomon than him ;" that is, "than by -him."* 

The propriety or impronriety of many phrases, in the 
preceding as well as in some- other forms, may be disco- 
id, hy supplying the words that are not expressed ; which 
wiii be evident from the following instances of erroneous 
©obstruction. Be can read belter than me.' He is as 
good as h< r ? 'Whether I he present or no. 1 'Who did 
this ? Me ' By supplying the words understood in each 
of these phrases, their impropriety and governing rule 
•will appear: as, 'Better than ['can read ;' 'As good as 
she is;' Present or not present;' *J did it J 

1. By not attending to this rule many errors ha ^e 
been committed ; a number of which is subjoined, as a 
further caution and direction to the learner. *Thou art a 
much greater loser than me hy his death.' 'She suffers 
hourly .-more than me. 7 "We contributed a third more 
than the Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion 
more than us.' 'King Charles, and more than him, the 
duke and the popish taction, were at liberty to form new 
themes? 4 The dri't of all his sermons was, to prepare 
the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, 
and whose shoes he was p.ot worthy to bear.' 'It was 
not the work of so eminent an anther, as him to whom it 
was first imputed. ' 4 A stone is heavy, and the sand weigh- 
ty ; but a fooPs wrath is heavier than them both ? 6 If the 
king give us leave, w-e may perform the office as well as 

* See the Tenth, or any subsequent, edition of the Key, Rule 
KXo „The Note. 



' 



Role 21.) SYNTAX. 19$ 

them that do.' In these passages it ought to be, % we, 
he, they, respectively.' 

When the relative who immediately follows than, it 
seems to form an exception to the 20th rule ; for in that 
connexion, the relative must be in the objective case; 
as, 'Alfred, than whom, a greater king never reigned,' 
&c 'Beelzebub., than whom, Satan excepted, none higher 
sat,' &c. It is reniarkable that in such instances, if the 
personal pronoun were used, it would be in the nomina- 
tive case ; is 'A greater kins never reigned than kfi? that 
is, 'ihan he was: 'JJeelzebub, thantu? &c. ; that is, 
Hhan he satS The phrase thm wkcm, is, however, avoi- 
ded by the best modern w liters. 

RULE XXI. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and (o 
express our ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or 
omission of some words, is frequently admitt- 
ed. Instead of saying, "He was a learned 
man, he was a wise man, and he was a good 
man f we make use of the ellipsis, and say, 
"He was a learned, wise, and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure 
the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended 
with an impropriety, they must be expressed. 
Ju the sentence, "We are apt to love who love 
lis," the wovd them should be supplied. "A 
beautiful field and trees," is not proper lan- 
guage. It should be, "Beautiful fields and 
i trees ;" or, "A beautiful field and fine trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less el- 
liptical ; some examples of which may be seen under the 
different parts of speech. 

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used ; <A man, 
, woman, and child:' that is, 'a man, a woman, and a 
lehjld." 'A house and garden f that is, 'a house and a 
garden. 5 v The sun and moon ;' that is, 'the sun and the 
t*noon.' 'The day and hour j 5 that is, the day and the 

17 



19 4 ENGLISH. GRAMMAR. (Rule 2\< 

hour.'- In all these instances, the article being once ex- 
pressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. There 
is, however, an exception to this observation, when 
some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the 
following sentence. 'Not only the year, but the day 
and the hour.' In this case, the ellipsis of the last arti- 
cle would be improper. When a different form of the 
article is requisite, the article is also properly repeated : 
as, *a house and an orchard ;' instead of, a house and 
orchard.' 

2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following 
manner. 'The laws of God and man ;' that is, 'the laws 
of God and the laws of m?n.' In some very emprmti- 

.<t>al expressions, the ellipsis should not be used : as, 'Christ 
the power of God, and the wisdom of God f which is 
more em:>hatical than, 'Christ the power and wisdom of 
God.' 

3. The ellipsis of "the adjective is used in the following 
manner. 'A delightful garden and orchard ;' that is, *a 
delightful garden and a delightful orchard ;' 'A little 
man and woman f that is, <A little man and a little wo- 
man ;' In such elliptical expressions as these, the ad- 
jective ought to have exactly the s^ine signification, and 
to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter substant- 
ive as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not 
be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns 
of different numbers : as, 4 A magnificent house and gar- 
dens.' In this case it is better to use another adjective ; 
as, 'A magnificent house and fine gardens.' 

4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun. 6 l love 
and fear him ;'. that is, 'J love him, and I fear him .' 4 My 
house and lands;' that is, 'my house and ray lands.' In 
these instances the ellipsis may take place with proprie- 
ty ; but if we would be more express and emphaiical, it 
must not be used : as, *His friends and his foes ;' 'My 
sous and my daughters.' 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative 
pronoun is usually omitted : as, 'This is the man they 
-love ;' instead of/ 'This is the man whom they love? 
^These are the goods they bought;' for, 'These are the 
.goods which they bought.' 



Rule 21.) syntax. IfiST 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the 
relative pronoun expressed : as it is more proper to sajy 
'The posture in which i lay/ than, 'In the posture I lay:' 
'The horse on which I rode, Tell down ; 5 thaa 'The horse 
I rode, fell down.' 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a 
sentence together, and, to prevent obscurity and confu- 
sion, should answer to each other with great exactne ss. 
'We speak that we do -know, and testify that we have 
seen.' Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, an4 
ought to be supplied: as, 'We speak that which we do- 
know, and testify that which we have seen/ 

5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following in- 
stances. 'The man was old and crafty ;' that is, 'the 
man was old, and the man was crafty.' 'She was young, 
'■ and beautiful, and good ;' that it, 'She was young, she 
was beautiful, and she whs good' 'Thou art poor, and 
wretched and miserable and blind, and ni ked.' If we 
would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art 
DU^ht ie !>« repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choos'9 t<? point o«j{ ggg 
property above the rest, that property must be placed last* 
and the ellipsis supplied : as, 4 She is young and beauti- 
ful, and she is good.' 

'I went to see and hear hinl i;' ihni is, ( l went to see 
Mid i We^nt to hearhiiij.' In this instance there is not 
only an ellipsis of the governing vein I went, but tike- 
wise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is govern- 
ed by it. 

D?. did, have, had shall, will, may, might, and the rest 
I of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are" frequently 
used alone, to spare the repetition of .the verb : as, 'lie 
regards his word, but thou dost not : i. e. 'dost not re- 
gard it.' "'We succeeded, but they did not;' 'did not 
succeed.' '1 have learned my task, but thou hast not ;* 
'hast not learned.' 'They must and they shall be pua- 
bliedj' that is, 'they must be punished.' See the Key. 

(5. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following 
manner. 'He spoke and acted wisely ;' that is, 'Bo 
spoke wisely, and he acted wisely. 'Thrice I went and 
offered my service ;' that is, 'Thrice I Went, and thrice i 
o ifer e d i ny s e r v i c e . • 



1*96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 21" 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb,, 
is seen if* the following instances : "He went into the 
abbeys, halls, and public buildings ;" that is, "he went 
into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into 
the public buildings." "Fie also went through all the 
streets and lanes of the city ;" that is, ^Through all 
the streets, and through ail the lanes," &c. "He spoke 
to every man and woman there," that is, "to every inaa 
and to every woman. " "This day, next month, last 
year ;" that is, "on this day, in the next month, in the 
last year ;"' "The Lord do thac which seemeth him 
good ;" that is, "which seemeth to him." 

8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : "They 
confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love, of their 
Creator;" i. e. "the power, and wisdom, and goodness, 
and love of," &c ? "Though 1 love him, I do not flatter 
him," that is, ^Though I love him, vet 1 do not flatter 
Mm/' 

&. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common; 
it, however, is sometimes use d : as, "Oh! pity and 
$)ia:ne I" that is, '-Oh piiy l Oh shame !" 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the 
English language, numerous examples of it might be giv- 
en ; but only a few more can he admitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable 
one : "He will often argue that if this part of our trade 
were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; 
and if .another, from another;" that is, 'He will often 
argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, 
we should gain from one nation and if another part of 
our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from ano- 
ther nation," 

The following instance's, though short, contain much of 
the ellipsis ; "Wo is me ;" i. e. "wo is to me." ' w To let 
blood ; I e. "id let out blood." "To let down ;" i. e, 
"to let it fall or slide down." "To walk a mile ;" i.e. 
c to walk through the space of a mile." "To sleep all 
night ;" i. e. "To sleep through all the night." "To go 
a fishing ;" Wk To go a hunting ;"L e. "!o go on a fishing 
voyage or business ;" "to go on a hunting party. r "I 
dine at two o'clock > i. e. "at two of the clock" "i y 
sea^ by land, onshore :" he. "By the sea, by the land, 
on the shorn." 



Rule 22.) syntax. W^ 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show 
the impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases* 
t4 The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by 
those intrusted with the command f it should be, 'those 
vermis intrusted;' or, "those who were intrusted." "Ifhe 
had read further, he would have found several of his ob- 
jections might have been spared :" that is, "he would 
have found that several of his objections," &c. "There 
is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their 
own characters." It ought to be, "nothing in wfuch 
men ;" and, "than in knowing. 55 "I scarcely know any 
part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and 
use;" it should be, "which would yield," &c. "In the 
temper of mind he was then;" i. e. "in which be thea 
| was." "The little satisfaction and consistency, to be 
§£>und in most of the systems of divinity 1 have met with, 
made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Script- 
lures :" it ought to be, a which are to be found," and, 
"which! have met with." u He desired they might go 
to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to 
whom only they were due*" i. e.'Ho him to whom," &g- — 

RULE XXIL 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond 
io each other : a regular ami dependent eon- 
simeticMi, throughout, should be -carefully'' pre* 
served* The following sentence is therefore 
inaccurate : "Be was more beloved but not so 
much admired, as -Ciulhio." It should be, "K-i- 
■ was more beloved than Ciathio, • but not so 
much adaiired. * 

The fivai example under this rule, presents a most irre- 
gular construction, namely* u IIe was more helovi d at -Cln- 
thio.*' The words more and so ?nuch, are v ery improperly 
stated as having the same regimen. In correcting -such 
sentences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis'? 
because it cannot lead to any discordant or improper con- - 
sfcruction, and the supply would often be harsh or inele- 
gant. See?. 189. 



108 English grammar. (Rule 22. 

As the 22d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, 
it may, at the first view, appear to be loo genera! to be 
useful. But by ranging under it a number of. sentences 
peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive, that it is calcu- 
lated to ascertain tht true grammatical construction of 
many modes of expression, which none of the particular 
rules can sufficiently explain. 

'This dedication may serve for almost any book, that 
has, is. cr shall be published." It ought to be, u that has 
been, or shall be published." "He was guided by interests 
always different sometimes contrary to, those of the com- 
munity;" ' "different /rom ; ,v or, "always diffeicnt from 
those of the community, and sometimes contrary to them." 
"Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even 
older than tradition ?"' The words, "as old,"and"oldcr,"* 
cannot have a common regimen ; it should be u as old as 
tedtiioa, or even older." "It requires few talents to 
which most men are not born, or at least may not ac- 
quire ;" "or which, at least they may not acquire.'*"" 
"The court of -chancery frequently mitigates and breaks 
the teeth of the common law." In this construction, the 
first verb is said, 6 tc mitigate the teeth of the common 
Taw," which is an evident solecism. "Mitigates the com- 
mon law, ami breaks the teeth of it," would.- have been 
grammatical* 

"* They presently grow into good humour, and good lan- 
guage towards the crown ;" "grow into good language," 
is very improper. ''There is never wanting a set of evil 
instruments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, 
or filthy lucre, are always ready." &c. We say properly, 
"A man acts out of mad ze^I," or, "out of private ha- 
tred :" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, 
*he acts out of filthy lucre"' "To double her kindness 
and caresses of me;" the word "kindness" requires to be 
followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with, 
the preposition of. "Never was man so leased, or suf- 
fered half the uneasiness, as I have done this evening :" 
the hrst and third clauses, viz. "Never was man so teas- 
ed, as I have done this evening," cannot be joined with- 
out an impropriety; and to connect the second and third, 
the word that must be substituted for as; "Or suffered 
lm\i "the uneasiness that I have done ;" or else, "half so 
i&t&b uaeasifcess as I have suffered*" 



"Utile 22.) syntax. 199 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with 
adverbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one 
another ; 'How muck soever the reformation of (his degen- 
erate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet 
feave a more comfortable prospect of future times." The 
sentence would he more correct in the follow iug form : 
"Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly 
to be despaired of," &c. 

a 0h ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life 
with the bloodthirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and 
their right-hand is full of gifts." As the passage, introduc- 
ed by the copulative conjunction and, was not intended as? 
a continuation of the principal and independent part of 
the sentence, but of the dependent part the relative whose 
should have been used instead of the possessive their ' ; viz. 
"and whose right-hand is full of gifts." 

6 Eye hath not seen nor ear heard, neither have entered 
into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared 
for them that love him."' There seems to be an improprie- 
ty in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a 
double capacity, performing at the same time the offices 
both of the nominative and objective cases. "Neither 
hath it entered into the heart of man, to conceive the 
things,'*' &c. would been regular. 

4 We have the power of retaining, altering, and con> 
pounding, those images which we have once received, into 
all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very proper 
to say, '-altering and compounding those images which we 
have once received, into all the varieties of picture and 
vision ; 'but we can with no propriety say, 'retaining them 
into all the varieties;" and yet, according to the manner 
in which the words are ranged, this construction is un- 
avoidable : for '-retaining, altering, and compounding" 
are participles, each of which equally refers to. and gov- 
erns the subsequent noun, these images; and that noun 
again is necessarily connected with tire following .preposi- 
tion, into. The construction nrc;hi easily have been recti* 
ified, by disjoining the participle retaining from the other 
two participles, in this way: "We have the power of re- 
taining those images which we have once received, and 
■of altering and compounding them into a!i the varieties of 
' i"e and vision ;" or ? perhaps, better thus : "We Uva 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those 
images which we have once received, and of forming 
tiicm into all'the varieties of picture and vision." 

INTERJECTION. 

For the syntax of the interjection, see Rule v. Note 
H, page 141, and Note &, of Rule xxi» 



DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING; 

As we have finished the explanation of the different 
parts of speech, and the rules for forming- the m into sen- 
tences, it is now proper to give some examples of the 
manner in which the learners should be exercised, in or- 
der to prove their knowledge, and to render it familiar to 
them. Thk is called parsing. The nature of the sub- 
ject, as well as the adaptation of it to learners, requires 
th^t it -should be divided into two parts, viz. parsing, es 
it respects etyieoJogy alone ; and parsing* as it respects 
both etymology and syntax.* 

Section h Specimens of etymological parsing. 
"Virtue ennobles us.?' 
Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gendeiy.. 
€ne third person, the singular number, and in the nomina- 
tive case. (Decline the noun.) Ennobles is a regular verb 
active, indicative mood, present lense, and the third per- 
son singular. (Repeat the present tense, the imperfect tense, 
and the perfect participle^) Us is a personal pronoun, of 
the first person plural, and in the objective case* (De- 
cline it. J 

U G ood n e ss will he re wa rd ed. ' r 
Goodness is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
der, the thirdperson, the singular number, and in the 
nominative case (Decline it.) Will be rewarded is a re- 
gular verb, in the passive voice, the indicative mood, the 

* See the ( General Directions for using the English Exerci- 
ses," prefixed to the Eighth and every subsequent edition of that 
Bbok^ 

f The learner should, occasionally repeat all the moods and i 
!3nses of tb.Q verbs?> 



SYNTA3 



20 i 



irst future tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat 
Hie present tense, the imperfect tense, and the perfect parti- 

ciple.) 

'■Strive to improve." 

Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative 

mood, and of Vae second person singular. (Repeat the 

present tense, &c.) To improve is a regular verb neuter, 

and in the infinitive mood. (Repeat the present tense, &c.) 

"Time flies O ! how swiftly." 
Time is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
the third person, the singular number, and in the nomina- 
tive case. (Decline the noun.) Flies is an irregular verb 
neuter, the indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
person singular. (Repeal the present tense. &c.) O 1 is an 
interjection. How ami swiftly are adverbs, 
"Gratitude k a delightful emotion." 
Gratitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
per,Yhe third person, the singular number, and in the 
nominVave case. (Decline it) Is is an irregular verb 
neuter, indicative mood present tense, and the third per- 
son singular. (Repeat (lie present tense, &c.) A is the 
indefinite article. Delightful is an adjective in the posi- 
tive state. (Repeat the degrees of 'comparison:) Emotion. 
h a common substantive of the neuier gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case, 
(Decline it ) 

"They who forgive^ act nobly." 
They is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the- 
plural number, and in tbe nominative cafce. (Decline it.) 
Who is a relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (De- 
cline it.) Forgive is an irregular verb active, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (R peat 
I the present tense, &e.j Act is a regular verb active, indi- 
cative mood, present tense, and the third person plural. 
(Repeat, &c.) Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Repeat the 
degrees of cempariscn.) 

"By living temperately, our health is promoted." 

LBy is a preposition. Living is the nr^sent participle 
the regular neuter verb "to livV." (Repeat the particU- 



2$2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR'. 

pks.) Temperately i3 an adverb of quality. Our is ae 
adjective pronoun of the possessive kiud. {Decline it.) 
Health is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) 
Is promoted is a regular verb passive, indicative mood' 
present tense, and the third person singular. (Rlpeat* 

"We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 
We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural 
number, and in ihe nominative case. (Decline it.) Shcidd 
be is an irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the 
imperfect tense, and the first person plural. (Repeat 'the 
prcsmt tense y &c.( Kind is an adjective, in the positive 
state. (Repeat the (kgrees of comparison.) To is a prepo- 
sition. Themis a personal pronoun, of the third person, 
the pJura! nitrnher, and in the objective; ease. (Decline 
it.) Who h a relative pronoun, and in the nominative 
case. (Decline ii.) Are is an irregular -vein neuter, in- 
dicative mood, present tense, am! the third p< rson plural, 
{r??p(*t; &c) ^ludtidk an adjective in the \ ositive state. 
(Repeat the degrees of coinparison.) To is a preposition. 
Us is a personal pronoun, of (he Mist, person, the plural 
number, and in the objective case. (Decline it.) 

feejTioK i n-Tr^C'^cns <f wmtacticQl narsin*. 

"Vice produces misery." 
Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender^ 
the third person, the singular number, and in the nomi- 
native case. Produces is a regular verb active, indica- 
live mood present tense, the third person singular, agree- 
ing with its nominative "wee? according to rule r. 
which says-;, (here repeal the rule.) Misery is a common 
substantive* of the neuter gender, the third person, the 
singular number, &m\ the objective case governed by the 
aclive verb k -produces/ 5 according to Rule xi. which 
says.. &c. 

4 Peace and joy are virtue's crown." 
Peace is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender , 
person, number, and case.) .find is a copulative conjunc- 
tion. Joy is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, 
mtmbeT) and case.) Are is an irregular verb neute ? yhidi~ 



-SYNTAX. 



203 



*tive mood, present tens?, and the third person plural* 
igreeing with the nominative case "peace aml 3 ov '" ac ; 
tording°to rule ii. which says; (here repeat the rule.) 
Virtue's is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
insular number, and in the obsessive case, governed by 
h* substantive "crown," agreeably to rule x. which 
lys,&c. Grown is a common substantive, of the neu- 
er gender, the third person, the singular number, and 
n the nominative case, agreeably to the fourth note of 

IULB XI. 

"Wisdom or folly governs us." 
Wisdom is a common substantive. (R peat the gender., 
lerson, number, and case.) Or is a disjunctive corijunc- 
ion. Folly is a common substantive, (R peat the per- 
mi, number, and case.) Governs is a regular verb active, 
indicative mood, present tense, and the third person sin- 
gular, agreeing with its nominative case "wisdom? or 
"felly," according to rule in. which says. &c. Us is 
a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, 
and in the objective case, governed by the active verb 
'governs " agreeably to rule xi. winch says. <fcc; 

'Every heart knows its sorrows." 
Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive ki mi, 
agreeing with its substantive "-heart," according to Note 
S under rule vtii which says, #c. Heart is a common 
substantive. (Repeal (he gender, person, number, emdease.) 
Knows is an irregular verb active indicative mood, pre- 
sent tense, third person lingular, agreeing with its nomi- 
native case "-heart,* according to rule i. which says,, 
, <S:e. Its is a personal pronoun, of the third persob singu- 
lar, and of the neuter gender, to agree with it? substan- 
tive 'heart," according to rule v. which says, &c. it is 
in the possessive case, governed by the noun "sorrows,* 
according to rule x. which says, &c. Sorrorvs is a com- 
mon substantive, of the third person, the plural number, 
and the objective case governed by the active verb 
"knows," according to Rule xi. which saj, s, &e. 

"The man is happy who lives wisely." 
The is the definite article. Man is a common sub- 
jiltautive. {Repeat the numher, pefstm, and case.) Is is ao 



20 i 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present (ense, 
and the third person singular, agreeing with the nominal 
five esse <, man," according to rule i. which says, &c 
Happy is an adjective in the positive state. Who is a 
relative pronoun, which has for its antecedent, -'man," 
with which it ngrees ia gender and number, according to 
rule v. which says, &e. Liges is a regular verb neuter, 
indicative Diootf, pres* nt tense, third person singular, 
agreeing wi>h its uomhmtive 'who/' according to rule 
vi. wh eh sayg, <fee. Wisely is an adverb of quality, pla- 
ced after the verb, according to rule xv. 

<; Who preserves us ." 
Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, 
and :n (he nominative case singular, The word to which 
it rehUs, (its subsequent,) is the noun or pronoun con- 
taining the answer to the question ; agreeably io a note 
under ri-le vi. Preserves is u regular verb active, indi- 
cative m od, present tensp, third person lingular, agreeing 
with its nominative * who," according to rule vu which 
says, &c. Us is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person^ 
number, case, and rule) 

SpWhose house is that ? My brother's and mine. 
Who inhabit ? We." 

Whose is a relative pronoun of ihe interrogative kind, 
and relates to the following words, ^BroVherV and 
"mine ' agreeably to a note under rule vi. It is in the 
possessive case, governed by 'house." tceordinfi: to rule 
x. which says, c£c House is a common substantive. (Re- 
peat the gender, person, number, and case) Is is an irre- 
gular verb neuter, indicative mood present tense, and 
the third person singular, agreeing, with its nominative 
case ' -house," according to rule l which says, S&. That 
is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. My is 
an adjective pronoun of the. possessive kind. Brothers is 
a common substantive, of the third person, the singular 
number, and in the possessive case, governed by "house'* 
understood, acceding to rule x» and a note under rule 
vr. And is a copulative conjunction. Mine is a personal 
pronoun, of the first person, the singular number, and in 
*he possessive case, according to a note under rule x* 



SYNTAX. 205 

-and another under rule vi. Who is a relative pronoun 
of the interrogative kind, of the plural number, in 
the nominative cdse, and relates to *J we" follow- 
ing, according to a note under Rule 6. Inhabit is a 
regular verb active. (Repeat the mood tense, pcrson^&c) 
It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the singular 
number, and in the objective case, governe d ;vy the ac- 
tive verb "inhabit." according to ft me l, which says, 
&c. We is i personal pronoun, of the first person, the 
plural number, and the nominative case to the verb 'in- 
habit/' understood. The words 'inhabit; H" are implied 
after "we/ 5 agreeably to a note under Rule 6. 

''Remember to assist the distress 
ttcthembery is a. regular v^rb active, imperative mnod, 
the second person singular, and -agrees with its nomina- 
tive case "thou" understood. To assist ts a regular verb 
active, in the infinitive mood. -governed by the preceding 
verb 'remember," according to Rule 3 2, which says, &c. 
The is die definite article. U&st is an adjective 

jput substantively. 

"We are not unemployed. " 

Wc is a persona! pronoun. (Repeat the person, number^ 
and ease.) Are is an irregular Verb neuter, (Repeat the 
moody tense, person, <£c.) Not is an adverb of negation. 
Unemployed is an adjective in the positive state. The two 
negatives not and un, form an affirmative, agreeably to 
Rule i 6, which says, &c. 

!'TIm8 bounty has relieved you and us; and has gratifi- 
ed the donor." 

This is an sdjectiVe prononr ; )l\?& kind* 

iBountyis a common jsubsfcarjrtivie. (i rsQnlr&ttn- 

her. and ca^e.) Has relieved is a . , e, in- 

dicative mood, perfect (ease, third dar, agree- 

ing with its nominative '/bounty, iug to Rule ?. 

v hlch says, <£e You is a pe . of the second 

person plural, and in ihe obj ,e. (Repeat the go- 

' ) And is a copulative conjunction. Us 
is • ' pronoun,ip the objective case. Fn* and us 

{ are put in the same ca^e, ac« 

i*ays 3 &c* And is a copulatiV 
IS 



2CG ENGLISH GltAMMAK. 

is a regular verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, 
and third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
"bounty ," understood." 'Has relieved," and (t Has gratifi- 
ed,''* are in the same mood and tense, according to rule 
xvi ii. which says, &c. The is the definite article. Donor 
is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular 
number; and the objective case governed by the active 
verb "has gratified/' according to Rule ti. which says, 
&c. See the Octavo Grammar, on Gender. 

"He wilK not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular 
Dumber, masculine gender, ami in the nominative case. 
Will he pardoned is Ta regular passive verb; indicative mood, 
first future tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative "he, 55 aceorifeg to Rule 1, and com- 
posed of the auxiliaries 'wili be, 59 anil the perfect parti- 
ciple '-pardoned." Not is a negative adverb. Unless is 
a disjunctive conjunction. He is a personal pronoun. 
(llepea* the person^ number, gender, and case.) Repent is a 
regular verb neuter, in the subjunctive mood, the present 
tense, the third person singular, and -agrees with its nomi- 
native case u he, 5!> according to Rule I, which says, &c. 
It is in the subjunctive mood, because it implies a future 
sense, and denotes uncertainty signified by the conjunc- 
tion "unless," agreeably to Rule 19, and the notes. 
"Good works in bg neglected, devotion is false." 

Good works t rfycied, being independent of the 

rest of the sec bsoiute, according io the 

fifth note of Rule 1. Devciicn is a common substantive. 

ase.) Is is an irregular 

: J . tense* person, &c. Fahe is 

Hive s|ate, and belongs to its sub- 

imderstood, agreeably to Rule S, 

5 OJC . 

£ >TJif Ai-i-elius, was a wise and vir- 

ie. Emperc*r is a common sub- 

e third person, the 

re case. Marcus 

and in the no- 

miaatiYe case, became it is put in opposition with the 



SYNTAX. 207 

substantive 4; emperor," agreeably to the first note of Rule 
]0. Was is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, 
imperfect tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
v/ith its nominative case "emperor." A is the indefinite 
article. Wise is an adjective, and belongs to hs substan- 
tive "prince." And is a copulative conjunction. Virtu- 
\ ous is an adjective, and belongs, &c. Prince is a common 
f substantive, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the 
fourth note of Rule 1 1. 

"To err is hurpan." 

To err, is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case 
to the verb "is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and the third person singular, 
agreeing with its nominative case "to err, agreeably to 
Note 1, under Rule the first. Human is an adjective, 
and belongs to its substantive "nature" understood, ac- 
ting to Rule 8, which says, etc. 

"To countenance persons who are guilty of bad ac- 
tions, is scarcely one remove from actually commit- 
ting them/' 

To countenance per$o?is who are guilty cf bad actions, is 
part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the 
verb "is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, &c. agreeing 
•with the aforementioned part of a sentence, as its nomi- 
native case, agreeably to Note I, under Rule the first. 
Scarcely is an adverb. One is a numeral adjective agree- 
ing with its substantive "remove." Remove is a com- 
incn substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, 
: the singular number, and in the nominative case, ajgreea- 
. bly to the fourth note of Rule 1 !. From is a preposition. 
\ Committing is the present participle of the regular active 
verb "to commit," Them is a personal pronouB-^of the 
third person, the plural number, and in. the objective case, 
governed by the participle "committing," agreeably to 
Rule 14, which says, &c. 

a Let me proceed." 
/ This sentence, according to the statement of gramma 
i rians in general, is in the Imperative mood, of the first per- 
son, and the singular number. The sentence mcy, how- 
ever, be analyzed in the following manner. ],el is an 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

irregular verb active, in the imperative mood, of the 
second person, the plural number, and agrees with its 
nominative case "you" understood : as, "do you let." 
Me is a personal pronoun, of- the. first person, the singular 
number, and in the objective case, governed by the active 
verb "let," agreeably to Rule xi. which says, &c. Pro- 
ceed is a regular verb neuter, in the innnitive*mood, gov- 
erned by the preceding verb "let," according to Rule 
xiL which says, &ct 

"Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. 
By living frugally ^ind temperately, health is preserved. 55 

hiring expensively and luxuriously, is the nominative case 
to the verb "destroys," agreeably to Note i, under Rule 3. 
Living frugally and temperately, is a substantive phrase in 
the objective case, governed by the preposition iC by," 
according to Note 2, under Rule xiv. 

The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefully stu- 
died by ihe learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit, to 
enable him to comprehend the nature of this employ- 
ment ; and sufficiently diversified, to qualify him, ia 
other exercises, to point out and apply the remaining 
iu!es, beth principal and subordinate. 



( 209 ) 
TART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody consists of two parts : the former 
teaches the true pronunciation of words, 
comprising accent, quantity, emfiiAGt^ 
pause, and tone ; and the latter, the laws of 

VERSIFICATION, 

CHAPTER T. 

OF pronunciation, 

Section 1. Of Accent, 

Accent is the laying of -a peculiar stress 
voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a 
word, that it may he better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them : as, in the 
■word jiresu'me, the stress -of the voice must be 
on the letter ??, and second syllable, sunie, 
which take the accent. 

As words may be formed of a different number of sylla- 
bles, from one to eight or nine, it was necessary to have 
,j some peculiar mark to distinguish words (rem mere sylla- 
bles ; otherwise speech would be only - 2d sue* 

"cession of syllables, without conveying ideas; for, a:? 

% word© are the mark3 of ideas, any confuidch in the maris 
must cause the same in the ideas for winch they stand. 
It was therefore necessary, that the mitid should <d ones 
lieroeive what number o£ -syllables belongs to each word, 
in utterance. This might be done by a perceptible p; 

I at the end of each word in speaking, as we form a certain 
distance between them in wilting and printing. But Ibis 
would make d y tedious ; and 

Bufd make (he : n 



2.10. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentences confused. Syllables might also be sufficiently- 
distinguished by a certain elevation or depression of voice 
upon one syllable of each word, which was the practice 
of some nations. But the English tongue has, for this 
purpose, adopted a mark of the easiest and simplest kind, 
which is called accent, and which effectually answers the 
end. 

Every word in our language, of more than one syllable^ 
has one of them distinguished from the rest in this man- 
lier; and some writers assert, that every monosyllable of 
two or more letters,, has one of its letters thus d is tin? 
gfrisfred. 

A c^nt is either principal or secondary. The princi- 
pal accent is that which necessarily distinguishes one syl- 
able in i word from the rest The secondary- accent is 
that stress which we may occasionally place upon an- 
other syllable, besides that which has the principal ac- 
cent; in order to .pronounce every part of the word more 
distinctly, forcibly, and harmoniously : thus, "Complai- 
sant, caravan,'* and "violin," have frequently an accent 
on the first as well as on the last syllable, though a some- 
what less forcible one,. The same may be observed of 
''Repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," &c. But it 
must be observed, that though an accent is allowed on thfe 
first syllable of these words, it is by no means necessary ; 
they may all be pronounced with one accentj and that 
on the last syllable, without the least deviation frona 
propriety. 

An emphasis evidently points out the most significant 
word in a sentence; so where other reasons do not for- 
bid, the accent always dwells with greatest force on that 
pari of the word which, from its importance, the hearer 
has always the greatest occasion to observe : and this is 
necessarily the root or bo ly of the word. But ss harmo- 
ny of termination frequently attracts the accent from the 
root to the branches of words, so the first and most 
natural law of Accentuation seems to operate less in fixing 
the stress than any other. Our own Saxon terminations, 
indeed, with perfect uniformity, leave the principal part 
of the word in quiet possession of what seems its lawful 
property; but Latin and Greek terminations, of which 
language is fill, assume a right of preserving their,. 



PROSODY. 

original accent, and subject almost every word they be- 
stow upon us to their own classical laws. 

Accent therefore, seems to be regulated in a great 
measure by etymology. In words from the- Saxon, the 
accent is generally on the root; in words from the learn- 

^ed languages, it is generally on the termination ; and if 
to these we add ;h^ different accent we lay on some words; 
to distinguish them from others, we seem to have the 
three great principles of accentuation ; namely, the radi- 
cal, the tcrminaiional, and the distinctive. The radical : 
as, "Love, lovely, loveliness ;"' the terminational : as, 
^Harmony, harmonious ;" the distinctive : as, "Convert, . 
to convert." 

ACCENT ON DISSYLLABLES. 

Words of two syllables have necessarily one of then?; 
accented, and but one. It is true, for the sake of emph?.*. 
sis, we sometimes lay c\n equal stress upon two succes 
sive syllables : as, "Di reel, some-times ft but when these* 
words are pronounced alone, they have never more tban 
one accent. The word "a^mea," is the only word which. 
is pronounced with two accents when alone. 

Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the* 
former syllable is commonly • accented : as, "(jhilcish, 
kingdom, aetest; acted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, fore- 
most, zealous, fulness, /meekly, artist." 

Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radi- 
cal word, have commonly the accent on the latter: as^ 
"To beseem, to bestow, to return/ 5 

Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns. and verbs, the 
verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun, ' 
pn the former syllable : as, "To cement, a cement; to 
contract, a contract ; to presage, a presage 

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom 
have their accent on the former, yet nonns often have it 
on the latter syllable : as, "Delight, perfume," Those 
i nouns which, in the common order of language, must 
I have preceded the verbs, often transmit their accent to 
I the verbs they form, and inversely. Thus, the noun 
|*%a}er," must have preceded the verb "to water/' as the 
J verb "to correspond," must have preceded the noua c: ccr- 



23r2 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

respondent :'! and "to pursue" claims priority to "pursuits 
So that we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate from 
the rale, it is seldom by chance^ and generally in those 
words only where a superior law of accent takes place. 

All dissyllables ending in y, owr, ow\ ic> isk, ck, Lev, 
age, en, el t as, "Cranny, labour, willow, wallow (> ex- 
cept ''allow, avow, endow, below, bestow;" ''battle* ban- 
ish, cambric, batter, courage, fasten, qiiiel ;" accent the 
former syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns in er, as "Canker, 'butter,"" have the 
accent on the former syllable. 

Dissyllable verbs, tenbiaating in a consonant and e 
fmalras, "Comprise, escape ;* 5 or having a diphthong in 
the lastsyliable, as, u Appease, reveal;" or ending in twb 
consonants ; as, "Attend ;" have* the accents on the lat- 
ter syllable. 

Dissyllable •■ nouns, having a diphthong in the iatter 
syllable, have commonly their accent on the latter sylla- 
ble ; as, "Appfaose ;" except some words in ain : as 3 
"Villain, curtain, mountain./' 

Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated 
in the pronunciation, have always the accent on theHrst 
syllable : as, "Lion, riot, quiet, liar, ruin ;" except- "ere- 

ACCENT ON TRISYLLABLES, 

Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or press- 
ing a syllable, retain the accent; of the radical word : as^ 
''Loveliness, tenderness, contemner, wagoner, phy'sical, 
bespatter, commenting, commending-, assurance." 

Trisyllables ending in ons, at, ion : as, arduqus, capital, 
snention," accent the first* 

Trisyllables ending in ce, etiL and ale, accent the first 
syllable : as, "Countenance, continence, armament, im- 
minent, elegant, propagate ;" unless they are derived 
from words having the accent on the last: as, "Conni- 
vance, acquaintance ;'? and unless the middle syllable 
has a vowel before two consonants : as, "Promulgate." 

Trisyllables ending in y, as, "entity, specify, liberty, 
victory, subsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 

Trisyllables ending in re or le> accent the first sylla- 
ble : as, "Legible, theatre;" except "Disciple," and 



PROSODY. ^ i J 

seme words which have a preposition : as, ''Example, 
indenture." 

Trisyllables ending in wife, commonly accent the first 
syllable : as, "Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 

Trisyllables ending in aior. have the accent oh the 
middlesyllable ; as, ''Spectator: creator," &c. : except 
"orator, senator, barrator, legator." 

Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diph- 
thong, as, "Endeavour ;" or a vowel before two conso- 
nants; as, "Domestic ;" accent the middle syllable. 

Trisyllables that have their accent on the last sylla- 
ble, are commonly French : as, u Acquiesce, repartee, 
magazine ;" or they are words formed by prefixing one or 
two syllables to a long syllable : as, "Immature, over- 
charge." 

ACCENT ON .POLYSYLLABLES. 

Polysyllables, or words of more than thi 
generally follow the accent Of the words from whiiehfhey 
are divided: as, arrogating, coatinency, inconvhientiy, 
commendable, communicableness." 

Words ending in aior have the accent generally on the 
penultimate, or last syllable but one : as, ^Emendatory, 
gladiator, equivocajor. prevaricator.'' 

Words ending in le commonly have the accent on ths 
first syllable : as. amicable, despicable :" unless the se- 
cond syllable his a vowel before two consonants: as, 
"Combustible, condemnable." 

Words ending in ion, cus^ and iy have their accent on 
the antepenultimate, or last syllable but two : as, Salva- 
tion, victorious, activity. " 

Words which end in m, ?o, and caL have the accent 
on tho antepenult : as, 'Cyclopaedia, puncti io, despot- 
ical." i 

The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as com- 
plete or infallible : they are merely proposed as useful. 
Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions ;: 
and, in English, as in other tongues, much must be learn- 
I ed by example and authority. 

It may be further observed, that though the syllable on 
(which the principal accent is placed, is fixeS and certain, 
I jet we may, and do, frequently matte the secondary oriiv 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eipa], and" the principal secondary : thus, "Caravan, com- 
plaisant, violin, repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," 
may all have the greater stress on the first, and the less 
on the last syllable, without any violent offence to the 
ear : nay, it may be asserted, that the principal accent on 
the first syllable of these words, and none at all on the 
last, though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating 
or discordant ; but placing an accent on the second syl- 
able of these words would entirely derange them, and 
produce great harshness and dissonance. The same ob- 
servations may be applied to "demonstration, lamenta- 
tion^ provocation, navigator, propagator, alligator," and 
every similar word in the language. 

Sec :.vion 2. Of Quantity. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which 
is occupied in pronouncing it* it' is consider- 
ed as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long,- when the accent 
is on the vowel : which occasions it to be slow- 
ly joined in pronunciation with the following 
letters : as, **Fall. .bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on 
the consonant-; which occasion the vowel to 
be quickly joined to the succeeding letter : as, 

"ant, bonnet, hunger." 

Along syllable generally requires double 
the time of a short one in pronouncing it ; 
thus, "Mate"* and "Note" should be pronoun- 
ced as slowly again as "Mat'\and ?jN"$fc*? 

Unaccented syllables are generally short : as, 'admire, 
boldness, sinner." But to this rule there are many ex- 
ceptions : as, "also, exile, gangrene, umpire, foretaste," 
&c. 

When the accent is on -a consonant, the syllable is 
often more or less short, as it ends with a single conso- 
nant; or with more than one : as, "Sadly, robber; per- 
sist, match less." 

When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the 



PROSODY. 215 

syllable may be protracted, by dwelling upon the sewn 
vowel : as, "Cur'fc^n', fulfil' :" but when the accent falls 
en a mute, the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same 
manner : as, 'BuKble, captain toiler. " 

The quantity of vowels has, in some measure, been 

^considered under the first part of grammar, which treats 

K)f the different sounds of the ietters ; and therefore we 

Ishall dismiss this subject with a few general rules and 

observatie 

1st, Al\ vou - the principal accept, before the 

terminations ia< io* and ion, preceded by a single conso- 
nant, are pronounced long : as, '♦Regalia, folio, adhes 
explosion, confusion :" except the vowel t, which in that 
situation is short: as, -"Militia, punctilio/decision, con- 
trition." The only exceptions to this ruie seem to be 
eietion. battalion, gladiator, national, and rational/' 
2d, AH vowels th&t immediately precede Hie termina 
lions iiy and eiy, are pronounced long : : hy, piety, 

Spontaneity." But if one consonant, precedes these ter- 
minations, every preceding accented vowel is short ; ex- 
. cept w, and the a in Scarcity." and "rarity ;" as, ci Pc- 
larity, severity, divinity, curiosity ;~ impunity." Even u 
before two eonsonaots contracts itself: as, "Curvity, ta- 
citurnity," &c. 

3d. Vowels under the principal accent, before the 
terminations ic and fccZ, prer v\nt 7 

^are pronounced short; .thus, "Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, 
'harmonic," have the vowel short i while -Tunic, , runic, 
cubic," have the accented vowel long: and "Fanatical, 
ieal, levitical, canonical, 51 have the vowel short; but 
bical, musicah" &c. have the u long. 
,-. 4th, The vowel in the antepenultimate syllable of 
words, with the following terminations, is always pro- 
ved short. 
Icquy ; as, obloquy- 
<phe ; as, apostrophe, 
a ro meter. 
//; a£, diagonal. 
vorctts ; a3, carnivorous. 
ferous ; as, somniferous. 
Jluous ; as, superfluous. 
a; as, mciliSutttt 



parous 


; a 




cmcy ; 


as 


, aristocracy^ 




as, 


cosmogony. 




; as 


;, symphony. 




- ■* - 


astronomy. 




as, 


Unaton 




' 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



As no utterance which is void of proportion, can 'be 
agreeable to the ear: and as -quantity, or proportion of 
time in utterance, greatly depends on a due attention to 
the accent; it is a^olufely necessary for every person 
who would attain a ju^ and 'hery, to be mas- 

ter of thai point. Stc this sccti<m in the Octavo Grammar, 

BrcTioN 3. Of Emphasis. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller 
sound of voice, by which we distinguish some 
v, oiii or words on which we design to lay par- 
titular sirens, and to show how they affect the 
rest o$ th nci* Hfunelimes the emphatic 

worr- <d by a particular 

tone o a greater stress. 

On i! pat of the emphasis depends the 

life of proi}une4^tion. If no emphasis he placed on any 

•ds, not only win dj8ce»urse he rtnderod heavy and 

tmi -ieuoits. If the 
enjpl andHQonfound 

the m instance : such 

a sfniptt s this, ' '. u ;. i u ride to town to-day V y 

: is capable of no fewer acceptations, 

according as the emphasis is (JiiTerently placed on the 
words If it he pronounced thus : ki l)o yen ride to town 
-to-day .■?" the answer niay n&luraljy he, '-Ko, we send a 
servant ja our stead.'' If thus : ; Do ypu ride to town 
to-day? 5 ' answer. "'No, we intend to wfalk." 'Do you 
lire to tcrdn to-day ?*' it No, we rioe into the country/* 
'•'Do you ride to town to day?\ 'No, but we shali to- 
morrow -" In like manner, in so!en% discourse, the whole 
force and beauty of an expression often depend on the 
emphatic word ; and we may present to the hearers quite 
different views of the same sentiment, by placing the em- 
phasis differently. In the following words of our Saviour, 
observe in what different lights the thought is placed, ac- 
cording as the words are pronounced. "Judas, hetrayest 
thou the son of man with a kiss?" "Betrayest thou,'* 
makes the reproach turn on the infamy of treachery. 1 
vi Letrayest (hou^ makes it rest upon Judas's connexion 
\ ffith his master. '^Betray est thou the son of man,'' re 



nPEOSODY, 2 i 7 



iit upon our Saviour's personal character and eminence. 
"Betrayest thou the son of man with a 1dss2 r turns it up- 
on his prostituting the signal of peace and friendship to 
the purpose of destruction. 

The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a ques- 
tion: as, u #7t0saidso?" "When will he come T "What 
shall I do?" "Whither sjiall I go? : ' t-lVhydosi thou \yeepVj 
And when two words are set in contrast, or in opposition, 
to one another, they are both emphatic; a?. L 'Be is the 
tyrant, not the father, of his people;'' "ills sufyzcts fear 
him, but they do not love him." 

Some sentences are so fall and comprehensive, that al- 
most every word is emphatkal: as, 4 Ye hills and dales, 
ye rivers, woods, and plains : J; or, as that paibetic expostu- 
lation in the prophecy of Ezekiel, * c Why will ye die f* 
In the fatter short sentence, every word is emphatical ; 
and on which ever word we lay (he emphasis whether 
on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a dif- 
ferent sense, and opens a new subject of moving expos- 
tulation. 

As accent dignifies the syllable on which it h laid, and 
makes it more distinguished by Hie ear thsn the rest ; so 
emphasis ennobles the word to which it belongs, and pre- 
sents it in a stronger light (o the underllamlnig. Were 
there no accent?, words would be resolved into thtir origi- 
nal syllables : were there no emphasis, sentences would 
be resolved into their original words; anuV in this case, 
the hearer would be under fhe painful necessity, first, of 
making out the words, and afterwards, their meaning. 

Emphasis is Of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple, 
when it serves to point out only the plain meaning of any 
proposition ; complex, when, besides the meaning, it marks 
also some affection or emotion of the mind ; or gives a 
meaning to words, which they would not have in their 
usual acceptation. I n the former ca3e, emphasis is scarce- 
ly more than a stronger accent, with little or no change of 
tone ; when it is complex, besides force, there is always 
superadded a manifest change of tone. 

The following sentence contains an example of simple 
^mphasis: "And Nathan said to David, Then art the 
wnan." The emphasis on thou, serves only to point out the 
Jfieaning of the speaker. Bat ia the sentence which fol- 
ia 



2\o ENGLISH GRA5i:,lAll. 

lows, we perceive an emotion of the speaker superadded 
to the simple meaning: "Why will ye die V 

As the emphasis often falls on words in different parts 
of the same sentence, so it is frequently required to be 
continued, with a little variation, on two, and sometimes 
three words together. The following sentence exempli- 
fies both the parts of thi3 position : "If you seek to make 
one rich, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish 
his desires" Emphasis may be further distinguished, into 
the weaker and the stronger emphasis. In the sentence, 
"Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution ; w 
we perceive more force on the word strengthen, than on' 
any other ; though it is not equal to the stress which we 
apply to the word indifferent, in the following sentence:, 
"Exercise and temperance strengthen even an indifferent 
constitution.'* It is also proper to remark, that the words 
exercise, temperance, constitution, in the last example but 
one, are pronounced with greater force, than the particles 
and and the ; and yet those words cannot properly be 
called empbatical : for the stress that is laid on them, is 
no more than sufficient to convey distinctly the meaning 
of each word.— From these observations it appears, that 
the smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, con- 
junctions, prepositions, &e. are, in general, obscurely 
and feebly expressed ; that the substantives, verbs, and 
more significant words, are firmly and distinctly pronoun- 
ced ; and that the empbatical words, those which mark 
the meaning of a phrase, are pronounced with peculiar 
stress, and energy, though varied according to the degree 
of their importance. 

Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regula- 
tor of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables is 
fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, 
ivjien these words are ranged in sentences ; the Idng be- 
ing changed into short, the short into long, according to 
the importance of the words with regard to meaning : and 
as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be point- 
ed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the quantity. A 
few examples wiHf make this point very evident. 

PieasM thou shalt hear — aud learn the secret power. &c. 
Pieas'di thou shalt hear — and thou alone shalt hear— 
PleasM thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear— * 
TleasM thou sh£it hear — ihou<rh not behold the fair— 



PROSODY. 21$ 

Til the first of these instances, the words ' pUasul and 
hear, being equally emphatical, are both long : whilst 
the two intermediate words, IhGu and shall being rapidly 
passed over, as the sense demands, are reduced to a short 
quantity. 

In the second insianee, the word fftf§ by being Ihc 
most important, obtains the chief, or rather the sole em- 
phasis ; and thus, it is not only restored to its natural 
long quantity, but obtains from emphasis a stii! greater 
degree of length, than when pronounced in its separate 
state. This greater degree of length, is compensated by 
the diminution of quantity in the words pleased and hear, 
which are sounded shorter than in the preceding instance. 
The word shall still eoutinues short. Here we may also 
observe, that (hough thou is long in the first part of the 
terse, it becomes short when repeated in ihe second, on 
account of the more forcible emphasis belonging to the 
word alone, which follows it. 

In the third instance, the word shall having the empha- 
sis, obtains a long quantity. And though it is impossible 
to prolong the sound of this word, as it ends in a pure 
mute, yet in this, as in all similar instances, the addition? 
al quantity is- to be made out by a rest of the voice, pro- 
portioned to the importance of the word. in this in- 
stance, we may also observe, that the word shall, repeat- 
ed in the second part of the line, is reduced again to a 
short quantify. 

In the fourth instance', the word hear placet! in opposi- 
tion to the word behdlff, in the latter part of the line, ob- 
tains from the sense the chief emphasis* and a propor- 
tionate length. The words thou and skalt, are again re- 
I duced to short quantifies; and the word pleas\i lends 
some of the time which it possessed, to the more impor- 
tant word hear. 

From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity 

I of our syllables is not fixed ; but governed by emphasis. 

To observe a due measurement of time, on ad occasions,. 

i3doubt!ess^ery difficult ; but by instruction, attention, 

.ml prac ice, the difficulty may be overcome 

Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words ar.d 
yllables. but also, in particular cases, (he seat of (he ac- 
eat.. This is demonstrable from the following examples. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

"He shall increase, but I shall decrease." "There is a, 
dliference between giving aruiyorgiving." "In this spe- 
cies -of composition, /?to*'sibility is much more essential 
than probability." In these examples, the emphasis re- 
quires the accent to be placed on syllables, to which it- 
does not -commonly belong. 

in order to acquire the proper management of the erii- 
phasis, the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to 
be given, is, that the speaker or reader study to attain a 
just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiments 
which he is to pronounce. For to lay the emphasis with. 
exact propriety, is a constant exercise of good sense and 
attention. It is far from being an inconsiderable attain- 
ment. It is one of the greatest trials of a true and just 
taste; and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, 
and from judging accurately, of what is fittest to striken 
the feelings of others. 

There is one error, against which it is particularly 
proper to caution the learner ; nam*ly, that #f multiply- 
ing eranhatieal words too much. It is only by a prudent 
reserve in the use of them, that we can give them any 
weight. If they recur too often ; if a speaker or reader 
attempts to render every thing which he expresses of high 
importance, by.a multitude of strong emphases, we soon 
.earn to pay little regard to them. To crowd every sen- 
tence with emphatical words, is like crowding all the par 
ges of a book with Italic characters, which, a3 to the ef- 
is. j list ihe same as to use no such distinctions at all. 

Section 4. Of Pauses. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, 
are a total cessation of the voice, during a per- 
ceptible, and r ia inany cases, a measurable 
space of time, 

Pauses are equally necessary to the^ speaker, and the 
hearer* To the speaker, that he may take breath, with- 
out which he cannot proceed far in delivery ; and that 
be may, by these temporary rests, relieve the organs of 
t leech, which otherwise would be soon tired by contin- 
ued action ; to the hearer, that the ear also may be.re- 



*ROSOBYr 221 

lieved from the fatigue, which it would otherwise endure 
from a continuity of sound ; and that the understanding, 
may have sufficient time to mark the distinction of sen- 
tences, am! their several members. 

There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatic? 1 paus- 
es ; and next, such as mark the distinctions of the sense. 
An emphatical pause is made after something has been 
said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix 
the hearers attention. Sometimes, before such a thing 
is Bald, we usher it in with' a pause of this nature. Such 
pauses have the.same effect as a strong emphasis; and are 
subject to the same rules;- especially to the caution just 
now given, of not repeating them too frequently. For r,s 
they excite uncommon attention, and of course raise ex- 
pectation, if the importance of the matter is not fully an- 
' swerabie to such expectation, they occasion disappoint- 
ment and disgust. 

But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, 
is, to mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time 
to allow the speaker to draw his breaih ; and the proper 1 
and delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of the most 
nice and difficult articles of delivery. In ill 1 reading, and 
public speaking, the management of the breath requires a 
good deal of care, so as not to oblige us to divide words 
from one anotheiywhich have so intimate a connexion, 
. that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath,, 
and without the least separation* Many sentences are 
miserably mangled, ami the force of the emphasis totally 
lost, by the divisions being made in the wrong place. To> 
avoid this, every one, while he is speaking or reading, 
should be very careful to provide a full supply of breath 
for what he is to utter: It is a great mistake to imagine, 
that the breath must be drawn only at the end of a period, 
when the voice is allowed to fall. It may easily be ga- 
thered at the intervals of the period, when the voice is* 
only suspended for a moment ; and, by this management, 
one may always have a sufficient stock for carrying on the 
longest sentence, without improper interruptions. 

Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed 
upon the manner in which we utter ourselves in oidhiaryy, 
sensible conversation ; and not upon the siirT artificial 
manner which we acquire, from reading book*, according, 
1J9-* 



-22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR? 

fo the common punctuation. It will by no means be Snffi&_ 
cient to attend to the points used in printing ; for these 
aie far from marking all the pauses which ought to be 
made in speaking. A mechanical attention to these rest- 
ing-places has perhaps been one cause of monotony, by 
leading the reader to a similar tone at every stop, and a 
uniform cadence at every period. The primary use of 
points i?, to assist the reader in disc rning the grammat- 
ical construction ; and it is only as a secondary object, that 
they regulate his pronunciationr 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must 
not only be made in the right place, but also accompanied 
with a proper tone of voice, by which- the nature of these 
pauses is intimated; much more than by the length of 
them,w hicb can seldom be exactly measured. Sometimes 
it is only a slight and simple suspension of voice that is 
proper; sometimes a degree of cadence in the voice is 
required ; and sometimes that peculiar tone and cadence 
which denote the sentence to be finished. In all these 
cases, we are to regulate ourselves, by attending to the 
manner in which nature teaches us to speak, when en- 
gaged in real and earnest discourse with others. 

It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should ? 
be used when the sense is incomplete ; and the closing 
pause, when it is finished. But there are phrases, in ; 
which, though the sense is not completed, the voice takes r 
iheclosing, rather than the suspending pause; and others, 
in which the sentence finishes by the pause of suspension. 

The closing pause must not be confounded with that 
fall of the voice, or cadence, with which many readers 
uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing 4s more destructive 
of propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and 
inflections of the voice, at the close of a sentence, ought 
to be diversified, according to the genera! nature of the 
discourse, and the particular construction and meaning of 
the sentence. In plain narrative, and especially in argu- 
mentation, a small attention to the manner.in which we 
relate a fact, or maintain an argument, in conversation, 
will show, that it is frequently more proper to raise the 
voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. Some 
leniences are so constructed, that the last words require 
% «tron<rer erapinsis than any of the preceding ; wfeile 



PROSO&Tv 2215 

ailrers admit of .being closed with a soft ami gentle sound. 
Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the 
last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, suf- 
ficient to show that the sense is finished, will he proper. 
And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the plaintive, 
tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will often 
require a still greater cadence of the voice. The best 
method of, correcting a uniform cadeuce, is frequently to 
read select sentences, in which the style is pointed, and in 
which antitheses are frequently introduced : and argu- 
mentative pieces, or such as abound with interrogative^, 
or earnest exejamation. 

Section b. Qf T-mrs. 

Toxes are different both from emphasis and 
pauses ; consisting in the modulation of the. 
voice, the notes or variations of sound w hicU 
we employ in the expression of our sentiments. _ 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a 
degree of to a e or inflection of (he voice; hut tones, pe- 
culiarly so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and some- 
times even the whole of a discourse. . 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only 
observe, that the mind, in communicating; its ideas, is in* 
a continual state of activity, emotion, or agitation* frony 
the different effects .which those ideas produce in the 
speaker. Now the end of such communication being, not 
merely to lay open the ideas, but also the different feel- 
ings which they excite ia him who utters them, there 
must be other signs than wore! s r to manifest those feel- 
ings ; as words uttered in a monotonous manner, can re- 
present only a similar state of mind, perfectly. free from 
all activity or- emotion. As the communication of these 
internal feelings, w ;s of much more consequence in our 
social intercourse, than the mere conveyance of ideas, 
the Author of our being did not, as in that conveyance, 
leave the invention of the language of emotion, to man ; 
put impressed it himself upon our nature in the same 
panner as he has done with regard to the rest of the ani- 
Jnal world ; all of which express their various feelings, hy>. 
various tones. . Ours indeed, froni the superior rank th^t \ 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

we hold, are in a high degree more comprehensive ; as 
there is not an act of the mind, an exertion of the fancy, 
or an emotion of the heart, which has not its peculiar 
tone or note of the voice, by which it is to be expressed; 
and which is suited exactly to the degree of internal 
feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of these tones, that 
the life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of delivery consist. 

An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over 
Saul and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has 
been said on this subject. **The beauty of Israel is slain 
upon thy high places. How are the mighty fal!en ! Tell 
it not in Gath; publish it not in the sheets o! As&elon :.■ 
lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice ; lest the 
daughters of the uncircurfrcked triumph. Ye mountain^! 
of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor 
fields of offerings ; for there the shield of the mighty was. 
vilely cast away; the shield of Saul, as though he had 
not been anointed with oil !' 5 The first of these divisions 
expresses sorrow and lamentation; therefore the note is 
low. The next contains a spirited command, and should 
he pronounced much higher. The other sentence, in. 
which he makes a pathetic address to the mountains where 
Fiis friencls were slain must be expressed in a note quite 
different from the two former ; not so low as the first, nor 
so high as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet plaintive 
tone. # 

This correct and natural language of the emotions, i& 
not so difficult to be attained,, as most readers seem to 
imagine. If we enter into the spirit of the author's sen- 
timents, as well as into the meaning of his words, we shall 
not fail to deliver the words in properly varied tones. For 
there are few people who speak English without a pro- 
vincial tone, that have not an accurate use of emphasis,, 
pauses, and tones, when they utter their sentiments in 
earnest discourse : and the reason that they have not the 
same use of them, in reading aloud the sentiments of 
others, may be traced to the very defective aud errone- 
ous method, in which the art of reading is taught ; where- 
by all the various, natural expressive tones of speech, 
are suppressed, and a few artificial, unmeaning, reading, 
aotes, eue substituted for them. 

* Herries, 



PROSODY. 22;5> 

But when we recommend to readers an attention to the 
tone and language of emotions, we must be understood to. 
do it with proper limitation. Moderation is necessary in 
this point, a3 it is in other things. For when reading be- 
comes strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, 
and must he highly improper, as well as give offence to> 
the hearers; because it is inconsistent with that delicacy 
and modesty, which, on all occasions, are indispensable.. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF VERSIFICATION. 
A*s there are few persons who dc not sometimes read' 
•poetical composition, it seems necessary to give the stu- 
dent some idea of that part of grammar, which explains the 
principles of versification ; that, in reading poetry, he may 
he the betterable to judge of its correctness, and relish its 
beauties. When this lively mode of exhibiting nature 
and sentiment, is perfectly chaste, it is often found to be 
highly interesting and instructive. 

Versification is. the arrangement of a cer- 
tain number and variety of syllables, according: 
to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last 
sound of one verse; to the last sound or syllable 
of another. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent. parts of verse. We 
snail consider these separately. 

OF POETICAL. FCET. 

. A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. 
They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the 
voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a 
measured pace ; and it is necessary that the syllables 
^hich mark this regular movement of the voice, should, 
in some manner, be distinguished from the others. This 
distinction was made among the ancient Romans, by di- 
viding their syllables into long and short, and ascertain- 
ing their quantity by -an exact proportion of time in sound- 
ling them; the long being to the short, as two to one; 
| and the long syllables, being thus the more important, 



223 ENGLISH GUAM MAR. 

marked the movement. In English, syllables are divided 
into accented and unaccented ;; and the accented syllables 
being as strongly distinguished from the unaccented, by 
the peculiar stress of the voice upon them, are equally 
capable of marking the movement, and pointing out the 
regular paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by 
their quantity, among the Romans. 

When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, 
they are exactly of the same nature as the ancient ^et, 
and have the same just quantity in their syllables. So 
that, in this respect, we have all that the ancients fcad, 
and something which they had not. We have in fact du- 
plicates of each foot; yet with such a difference,- as to fit 
them for different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; 
and it is upon the knowledge and mht application of 
these powers, that the pleasure and effect of nu 
•hiefly depend. 

Ail feet used in poetry consist- either of twp, or of t 
syllables, and are reducible to eight kinds ; four of tw 
syllables, and four of three, as folio ws': 

DISSYLLABLE. THIS Y Li, ALE, 

A Trochee ~ v A Dactyl - v "w 

An Iambic w- An Amphibrach w - w 

A Spondee — An Anapaest w h~ 

A Pyrrhic w a A Tribrach <£ v v 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
unaccented : as, "Hateful, pettish.' 1 

An [ambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
last accented : as, "BetrSJ-, consist. 5 ' 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented : 
as, ''The pale m6on, v 

A Pv rrhic h. s both the words or syllables unaccented : 
as, k, 6.i the i all tree." 

A Dactyl Ims the first syllable accented, and the two 
latter unaccented: as La ; ,6ure>, possible." 

An Ampjlibrach has the first and last syllable^ unac- 
cented; and the middle one accented : as, ''Delightful, 
domestic." 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, 
and the last accented : as, "Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach h;s all its syllables unaccented; as, ' Nu« 
iperable, conquerable^' 




as 
anv 



PR030DY. 2p 

Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet ; 

pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of 

y of them. Such are the lamhus. Trochee, Dactyl, 
and Anapaest. The others may be terniec secondary 
' feet; because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, 
and to i approve the verse. 

We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet. 

IAMBIC verses may he divided into several species, 
according to the number of feet or syllables c,f which they 
are composed. 

1. The shortest form of the English fambrc coiiliMs of 
& an Iambus with an additioiial short syllable : as, 

Disdaining, 
* Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met 
with in stanzas. The famous, with this addition, coin- 
cides with the Amphibrach. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to 
be continued through any great number of lines. It coa- 

-sists of two Iambuses. 

What place is here ! 
What scenes appear! 
To me the rose 
No longer glows. 

If sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short syl 
lable : as, 

Upon a mountain 
Beside a fountain. 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In places far or near, 
Or famous or obscure, 
Where wholesome is the air, 
Or where the most impure. 
I It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable : as, 
Our hearts no longer languish. 



-22-8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The fourth form is made up of four lamfouseju 

And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

5. The fifth species of English Iambic, consists of.jHw 
'Iambuses. 

How lovM, how valued once, avails thee not, 
To whom related, or by whom begot : 
A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 
5 Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 
Be wise 16 day, 'tis madness to defer: 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead; 
Thus on, till wisdom 4s pushed out of life. 

This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form 
lit consists oi five lanabuses; but by the admission of other 
feeti as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests. &c it is capable 
of many varieties. Indeed, most of the English common 
measures may be varied in the same way,, its well as by 
the different position of their pauses. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called 
the Alexandrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 

For thou art but of dust ; be humble and be wise. 
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic 
rhyme ; and when used sparingly, and with judgment, 
occasions an agreeable variety. 

The seas shall waste, the skies In smoke decay, 
Rocks £${! to dust, and mountains melt away : 
But fixM his word, his saving powY remains: 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 

7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, 
m made up of seven Iambuses 

Th6 Lord descended from above. 
And bew'd the heavens high. 
This was ancienty written in one line; but it is now 
broken into two ; the first containing four feet, and th£ 
second three .• 

When all thy mercies, o my God ! 

My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost - 
In wonder, love, and praise* 



PROSODV. 22£ 

In all these measures, the accents are to he placed on even 
syllables; and every line considered by itself, is, in gene- 
ral, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 

TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, con- 
sists of one Trochee and a long syllable. 

Tumult cease, 
Sink to peace. 

This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be 
used on serious occasions. 

2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists 
of two feet; and is likewise so brief, th at it is rarely used 
for any very serious purpose. 

On the mountain 
By a fountain. 
It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an : 
tional long syllable : as, 
In the days of old 
Fables plainly told. 

3. Th* third species consists of three trochees : as, 

When our hearts are mdnming : 

®r of three trochees, with an additional long syUuMe : a&, 
Restless mortals toil lor nought; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never winders. Mortals, try ; 
There you cannot seek in vain; 
For to seek her is to gain. 

4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four tro- 

•chees ; as, 

Round us roars the tempest louder. 
This form may take an additional long syllable, as follows: 

idle after dinner In his chair, 

Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
But this measure is very uncommon. 

5> The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. 
It is composed office trochees, 



-30 # ENGLISH GRAMS* AH. 

All that walk on footer ride in chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of 
six trochees^ as, 

On a mountain, stretched beneath a hoary willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 

'This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our 
language admits. 

In ail these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be 
placed on the odd syllables. 

The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon^ 
•we shall give only one example of one species of it: 
From th low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 

AN AP/ESTIC verses are divided into several species. 

1. The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single ana- 
paest; as. 

But In vain, 

They complain. 
This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying 
the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we 
might make a trochaic. And therefore the first and sim- 
plest form of eur genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of 
.two Anapaests: as, 

But his courage 'gan fail, 

For no arts could avail. 
This forms admits of an additional short syllable. 

Then his courage ? gan fail him, 

For no art3 coulcj avail him. 

2. The second species consists of three Anapaests. 

ye woods, spread your branches apace ; 
To your deepest recesses I fiy ; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chace ; 

I would vanish from every eye. 
This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, botfc 
in solemn and cheerful subjects. 

The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of 
Jour Anapsssts. 



PROSODY. 231 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway; 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end : 

36, 

On the warm cheek of youth, smiles and roses are 
blending. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal 
feet, in their more simple forms. They are capable of 
numerous variations, by the intermixture of those feet 
with each other ; and by the admission of the secondary 
ieet. 

We have observed, that English verse is composed oi v 
feet formed by accent ; and that when the accent falls oa 
vowels, the feet are equivalent to those formed by quan- 
tity, That the student may clearly perceive this differ* 
ence, we shall produce a specimen of each kind. 

O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the stately hind. 
Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each se- 
cond syllable. In the following line, we shall find th& 
same Iambic movement, but formed by accent on conso 
nants, except the last syllable. 

Then rustling, crackling, crashing thunder down. 

Here the time of the short accented syllables, is com- 
pensated by a short pause, at the end of each word to 
which they belong. 

We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry 
is varied and improved, by the admission of secondary 
feet into its composition. 

Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night; 

The first foot here is a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. 

O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 

This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. - 

Innumerable before the Almighty's throne. 

Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. 

Sec the bold youth strain up the threat 7 iiing steep. 



2-32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

la this line, the first foot is a Trochee; the second a 
genuine Spondee by quantity ; the third a Spondee by 
accent. 

In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the 
second a Spondee. 

That on weak wings from far pursues your flight. 

JP&om the preceding view of English versification, we 
may see what a copious stock of materials it possesses* 
For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient 
poetic feet, in out heroic measure, but we have, as be- 
fore observed; duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, 
though differing in measure,* and which make different 
impressions on the ear ; an opulence peculiar to our lan- 
guage^ and which may be thesource of a boundless variety, 

OP POETICAL PAUSES. 

*f There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and one 
\m melody, perfectly distinct from each other. /The for- 
mer may be called sentential* the latter harmonic pauses.^ 

^TFbe sentential pauses are those which are known to us 
by the name of stops, and which have names given them? 
as the comma, semicolon, colon, and period. 

The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final 
se, and the cmsural pause/ These sometimes coincide 
with the sentential pause, sometimes have an independent 
f:e. that is, exist where there is no slop in the sense. 

-(The final pause takes place at the end of the line, 
closes the verse, and marks the measure :; the ceesural 
divides it into equal or unequal parts./ 

The final pause preserves the meIod3 r , without inter- 
fering with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly 
marks the bound of the metre; and .being made only by 
a suspension of the voice, not by any change of note, it 
can never affect the sense. This is not the only advan- 
tage gained to numbers^ by this final pause or stop of 
suspension. It also prevents that monotony, that same- 

w Moveioejit and measure are thus distinguished. Movement 
expresses the progressive order of sounds, whether from strong to 
weak, from iong to short, or vice versa. Measure, signifies the 
portion of time, both in sounds and pauses. 



PROSODY. 



233 



nesa of note at the end of lines, which, however pleas- 
ing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. For a3 
this filial pause has no peculiar cote of its own, hut 
always takes that which belongs to the preceding word; 
it changes continually with the matter, and is as various 
as the sense. 

It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions,, 
marks the difference between prose and verse ; which 
will be evident from the following arrangement of a fevr 
poetical lines. 

4 Of maaVfirst disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
bidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the 
world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater 
man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing heaves*- 
iy musef 3 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that 
tils was verse; but would take it for poetical prose. By 
properly adjusting the final pause, we shall restore the 
passage to its true state of verse. 

Of manVfirst disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death iuto the world, and all our wo, 
With toss-of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the biissfui seat, 
Bing 3 heavenly muse I 
These examples show the necessity of reading blank 
verse, in such a manner as to make every line sensible 
to the ear ; for, what 13 tile use of melody, or for what 
end hjas the poet composed in verse, if, in reading his 
lines we suppress his numbers, by omitting the final 
pause ; and degrade them y by. our pronunciation, iuto 
mere prose ? 

The Csesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth 
syllable of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot : 

&s, 

The silver eel" in shining volumes rolTd, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropp 3 d with gold. 
On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot : 

S3,' 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Bound broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd, 

O'er heaps of ruin" stalk'd the stately hind* 
On the sixth syllable or at the end of the third foot : ai> 

Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplor ? d, 

Co:iicJ make a gentle belie' reject a lord. 
A line may be divided info three portions, by two 
Caesuras : as, 

Outstretched he lay" on ihe cold ground" and oft" 

Look'd qp to heav'n. 
There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to 
the nature of the couplet, by introducing semi-pauses, 
which divide the Hue into four pauses. This semi-pause ' 
may be called a demicaesura. 

The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 

Glows' while he reads" but trembles 7 as he writes. 

Reason ihe card" but passion' 13 the gale. 

Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the stoma. 

OF MELODY, HARMONV, AND EXPRESSION. 

Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, 
constituent parts of verse, we shall now point out, 
more particularly, their use and importance. 
/Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great 
objects of poetic numbers. By melody, is meant, a plea- 
sing effect produced on the ear, from an apt arrangement 
of the constituent parts of verse, according to the laws of 
measure and movement, f By harmony, an effect produ- 
ced by an action <of the mind, in comparing the different 
members of a verse with each other, and perceiving a 
due and beautiful proportion between them, j By expres- 
sion, such a choice and arrangement of the constituent 
parts of verse, as serve to enforce and illustrate the thought 
or the sentiment. % 

We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- 
fication, both wi(b respect to the feet and J.he pauses- 

I st. With regard to melody. 

From the examples which we have given of verses 

composed in all the principal feet, it is evident (hat a 

considerable portion of me'tody is found in each of them, 

though in different degrees. Verses made up of pure 

have an excellent melody. 



FftOSODY, 

That the final andcsesural pauses contribute to melody, 
cannot be doubted by any person who reviews the in- 
stances which we have already given of these pauses. 
To form- lines of the first melody, the caesura must be at 
the end of the second, or of the third foot> or in the mid- 
dle of the third. 

2d, With respect to harmony. 

Verses composed ef Iambics have indeed a fine har- 
mony ; but as the stress of the voice, in repeating such 
verses, is always in the same places, that is, on every 
second syllable, such a uniformity would disgust the ear 
in a long succession ; and therefore such changes were 
sought for, as might introduce the pleasure of variety, 
without prejudice to melody ; or which might even con- 
tribute to its improvement. Of this nature was the in- 
troduction of the Trochee, to form the first foot of an he- 
roic verse : as, 

Favours to none, to all she smiles extend?, 
Oft she rejects, but never once otfends. 

Each of these lines begins with a Trochee; the re- 
maining feet are in the Iambic movement. In the fol- 
lowing line of the same movement, the fourth foot is a 
Trochee. 

All these our notions vain, sees and derides. 
The next change admitted for the sake of variety, with- 
out prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics 
and Spondees; in which, two impressions in the one foot 
make up for the want of one in the other; and two long 
syllables compensate two short ones, so as to make the 
sum of the quantity of the two feet, equal tb two Iambics, 

On the green hank to look into the clear 
Smooth ia^e that to me ^eem'd another sky. 
Stood rui?d stood vast Infinitude couf Ia\J. 
The nest variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach, 

Which many a bard had chaunted many a day. 
In this line, we find that two of the feet are Amphi- 
bruehs: and three, Iambics. 

We have before 3hown that the caesura improves the 
melody of verse; and we shall now speak of its other 
more important office, that of being the chief, source of 
harmony in number:. 



2SeT ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The first and lowest perception of harmony, by means 
of the caesura, arises from comparing two members of the 
snme line with each other, divided ia the manner to be 
seen in the instances before mentioned \ because the 
beauty of proportion in the members, according to each- 
of these divisions* is founded in nature f being as one ta 
two — two to three — or three to two. 

The next degree arises from comparing the members 
of a couplet, or two contiguous lines : as, 

See the bold youtft' strain up the threatening steep> 
Rush thro' the thickets' down the valleys sweep. 

Here we find the caesura of the ifr-st line, at the end of 
ihe second foot ; and in. the middle of the third foot, ia 
the last line* . 

Hang o'er their coursers'heads" with eager speed, 
And earth rolls back'' beneath the flying steed. 

In 4his couplet, the caesura is at the end of the third 
foot, in the first line : and of the second, in the fatter line. 
The next perception of harmony arises from compar- 
ing a greater number of lines, and observing the relative 
proportion of the couplets to each other, in point of simi? 
larity and diversity : as, 

Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 
At once the monarch V and the muse's seats, 
Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 
Unlock your springs" and open ail your shades. - 
Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 
When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 
Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 
When through the clouds" he drives the, trembling 
doves* 
In this way the comparison of lines variously appor- 
tioned by the different seats of the three caesuras, may be 
the source of a great variety of harmony, consistent with 
the finest melody. This is still increased by the intro- 
duction of two caesuras, and much more by that of serni- 
pauses. The semi-pauses double every where the terms 
of comparison ; give a more distinct view of the whole 
and. the parts ; afford new proportions of measurement, 
and an ampler scope for diversity and equality, those 
sources of beauty in harmony. 



PROSODY. 23? 

Warms' in the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through ali life" extends' through all extent^ 
Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent. 

3d. The last object in versification regards expression!. 

When men express their sentiments by words, they 

turally fall into that sort of movement of the voice, 

hich is consonant to that produced by the emotion in 
the mind; and the Dactylic or Anapsestic, the Trochaic* 
Iambic,or Spondaic, prevails even in common discourse, 
according to the different nature of the sentiments ex- 
pressed. To imitate nature, therefore/the poet, in arran- 
ging his words in the artificial composition of verse, must 
take care to make the movement correspond to the senti- 
ment, by the proper use of the several kinds of feet; and 
this is the first and most general source of expression in 
numbers. 

That a judicious management of the feet and pauses,, 
may be peculiarly expressive of particular operations and 
sentiments, will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a 
few select examples under each of those heads. 

I.q ihoiQ]lQmvzUi2izF- c ^ ih ~ ???* «i«aecaioji«-ofSataa* 
are shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, 
which detain us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his 
.fixed posture. 

So stretchM out Luge in length the arch fiend lily. 

The next example affords instances of the power of a 
Trochee beginning a line, when succeeded hy an Iambus* 

• raid sheer within 

Lights 6n his feet : as when a provrling wolf 
'Leaps o'er the fence with ease Into the fold. 

The Trochee which begins the line shows Satan in iho 
I act. of lighting: the Iambus that follows, fixes him— 
"Lights on his feet." 

^ The same artifice, iiithe beginning of the next line, 
Snakes us see the wolf— "leap o'er the fence." — But as 
| me mere act of leaping over the fence, is not the only 
| Jrcumstance to be attended to, bat also the facility with 
which it is done, this is strongly marked, not only by the 
smooth foot which follows — "with ease" — itself verv ex- 



23$; ENGLISH GRAMMARS 

pressive, but likewise by aPyrrhic preceding the lasf 
foot— "Into the fold*' — which indeed carries the wolf — 
"with ease Into the fold." 

The following instances show the effects produced by 
csesuragj so placed as to divide the line into very unequal 
portions : such as that after the first, and befoFe the last 
semipede. 

— —thus with the year 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 
Day" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 
Here the caesura after the first semipede Dai/, stops u^ 
unexpectedly, and forcibly impresses the imagination 
with the greatness of the author's loss, the loss of sight* 

No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd, but all 
The multitude of angels, with a shout 
Loud" as from numbers without number" sweet 
As from blest voices uttering joy.— — 

There is something very striking in this uncommon; 

feaesura, which suddenlt stops the reader, to reSect on the 

importance of a particular ^vord. 

We shall close the siil$?et s with an example contain* 

iog the united powers of many of the principles which 

lidve been explained. 

Dire was the tossing^' deep the groans" Despair" 
Tended the sick" busiest from coach to coach" 
And over them triumphant death" his dart" 
Shook" but 'del ay 'd to strike. 

Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody^ 
are taken from -"Sheridan's Art of Reading;" to which 
book the Compiler refers the ingenious student, for mpre 
extensive information on the subject. 




;( 239 ) 

PUNCTUATIONS 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a writ* 
ten composition into sentences, or parts of sen- 
tences, by .pointe or stops, for the purpose of 
tnai king the different pauses which the sense, 
and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represent* ihe shortest pauses 
ihe Semicolon, a pause double that of the Com*, 
-ma ; the Colon, double that of the semicolon ; 
and the Period, double that of the colon. 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot 
be denned ; for it varies with the lime of the whole. The 
same composition maybe rehearsed in a quicker or a 
slower time ; but the proportion between the pauses 
should be ever invariable. 

In order more clearly to determine the proper applica- 
tion of the points, we must distinguish between an imper- 
fect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound scnt&mm. 

An imperfect phr*se contains no assertion, or^^knot 
amount to a proposition or sentence : as, "Tn^Pore ; 
;in hasLe : studious of praise." 

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite 
verb, expressed or implied : as, "Temperance preserves 
health." 

A compound sentence has more than one suKject, or 
one finite verb, either expressed or understood ; or it 
consists of two or more simnle sentences connected toge- 
ther: as ''Good nature menus and beautifies all objects .;" 
^Virtue : lues the affections, but vice debases them." 

In a seutence, the subject and the verb, or either of 
Ihem, may be accompanied with several adjuncts : as, 

* As punctuation is intended to aid both the sense, and the 
> pronunciation of a sentence, it could rot have been exclusive!/ 
\ discussed under the part of Syntax, or of Prosody. The nature 
.of the subject, its extent and importance, and the grammatical 

.^knowledge which it presupposes, have induced us to make.it * 

*distinot and subsequent article. 



240 ENGLISH GBAfiOfAlU (CofldOia. 

the object, the end, the circumstance of time, place, 
manner, and the like : and the subject or verb may be 
either immediately connected with them, or mediately; 
that is, by being connected with something which is con- 
nected with some other, and so on : as, "The mind, un- 
occupied with useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of 
triSes and follies." 

Members of sentences may be .divided into simple and 
compound members, Bee page 129. 

chapter I. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts 
*>f a sentence, -which, though very closely con- 
nected in sense and construction, require a 
pause between them. 

Rule i. Willi respect to a simple sentence, the several 
words of which it consists have so near a relation to each 
other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a 
full s ton at the end of it : &s v , "The fear of the Lord is 
thejP^ning of wisdom.' 5 "Every part of matter swarm* 
witl^j&g creatures*" 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, 
and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable 
adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately before the 
verb : as, "The good taste of the present age, has not al- 
lowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English lan- 
guage :" a To he totally indifferent to praise or censure, 
is a real defect in character," 

Rule ii. When the connexion of the different parts of 
a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, 
a comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and 
at the end of this phrase : as, "I remember, with gratis 
fade* his goodness tome:" "His work is, in many re- 
specis^ \ery imperfect. It is, there/ere, not much appro- 
ved," But when these interruptions are slight and un- 
important, the comma is better omitted : as, <f Flattery is 
certainly pernicious ;" "There is surely a pleasure in 
'beneficence. 5 '- 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is fre- 



'Comma.) tlkctuation. 211 

quent occasion for commas. This Mil appear from the 
following rules ,\some of which apply to simple ; as well 
as to compound sentences. 

Rule 3. When two or more nouns occur in the same 
construction, -they are parted by a comma : as, "Reason, 
virtue, answer one great aim :" "The husband, wife, and 
children, suffered extremely ;"* "Tli^V took away their 
furniture, clothes, and stock in trade /* "He i3 alternate- 
ly supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder bro- 
ther/' 5 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with re- 
gard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction : 
as, "Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each oth- 
er;" "Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition ;" 
"There is a natural diffeience between merit and demerit, 
virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." But if the parts 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, 
though the conjunction is expressed : as, "Romances 
may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or* dangerous in- 
centives to evil ;" x Intemperance destroys the strength 
of our bodies, and the vigour of our minds." 

Rule 4. Two or more adjectives belonging: togjtosa me 
substantive are likewise separated by commas :^^HPlain, 
honest truth, wants no artificial covering;" "MPrI was 
a brave, wise, and pious man ;"" "A woman, gentle, sen- 
sible, well-educated, and religious ;"- "The most inno- 
cent pleasures are the sweetest; the most rational, the 
most affecting, and the most last i asc." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected hy a con- 
junction, are not separated by a comma : as, "True worth 
is modest and retired;" "Truth is fcir and artles3, simple 
and sincere, uniform and consistent." "We must be 
wise or foolish ; there is no medium." 

Rule 5. Two or more verbs, having th* same nomina- 
tive case, and immediately following one other, are also 
s para-ted by commas : as, "Virtue supports in adversity, 

* As a considerable pause in pronunciation, is necessary be- 
tween the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted 
to denote it. But as no pause is allowable between the last ad* 
jective and the noun, under Rule IV. the comma is there pror 
^erly omitted. See Walkers Etem&nU of Elocution. 

21 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Comma, 

moderates in prosperity :" "In a letter, we may advise, 
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, 
are an exception to the above rule : as, "The study of 
natural history expands and elevates the mind ;" "Wheth- 
er we eat gt drink, labour or sleep, we should be mode- 
rate." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, 
and exception : as, 'A man, fearing, serving, and loving 
lus Creator;" "He was happy in being loved, esteemed, 
and respected ;?' "By being admired and flattereu, we 
are often corrupted." 

Rule vi. Two or more adverbs immediately succeed- 
ing one another, must be separated by commas: as, 
** We are fearfully, wonderfully framed ;*'' "Success ge- 
nerally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigor- 
ously, in what we undertake." 

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction,, 
they are not parted by the comma ; as, "Some men sin 
deliberately and presumptuously ;" 'There h no middle 
state ; we must live virtuously or vitioiisly." 

RrLJUui. When participles are followed by something 
that d^^Ks on them, they are generally separated from 
the rel^Brihe sentence by a comma: as, "The king, 
approving the plan, put it in execution;" "His talents, 
formed for great enterprises., could not fail of rendering 
Mm conspicuous ;'? "All mankind compose one family, 
assembled under Hie eye of one common Father.'' 

Rule vm. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase 
or sentence" from the verb to which it belongs, such in- 
tervening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity : 
as, "They -set. out early, and, before the close of the day, 
arrived at (he destined place." 

Rule ix. Expressions in a direct address* are separa- 
ted from the rest of the sentence by commas : as, "My 
son, give me thy heart ;'* "i am obliged to you, my 
friends, lor your rfimf favours.-* 

Rule x. The erne absolute, and the infinitive mood 
absolute, are -separated by commas from the body of the 
sentence : as, ^His father dying, he succeeded to the 
estate ^ ' f; Al fepglbj their ministry performed, and race 



Comma.) punctuation. 243 

well run, they left the world in peace ;" ; To confess the 
truth, I was much in fault." 

Rule xt. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to 
other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or 
illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set 
off by commas : as, "Paul the apostle or* (he Gentiles, 
wa3 eminent for his zeal and knowledge ;" "The butter- 
fly, child of summer, flutters in (he sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper 
name, they are not divided : as, "Paul the apostle ;" 
<{ The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book." 

Rule xii. Simple members of sentences connected by 
comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a 
comma : as, '•'•As the heart panteth after the water brooks, 
so doth my soul pant after thee ;" ^Better is a dinner of 
herbs with love, than <i stalled ox and hatred with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the 
comma is, in genera', better omitted : as, ts Bow much 
fatter n % Js ^ri wisdom tuan gold :" "Mankind <\ot often- 
er from caprice than reason." 

Rule xih. When words are placed in opposition to 
each other, or with some marked variety, they require to 
be distinguished by a comma : as, 

"T&j 1 dee}), yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 

Strong, without rasre ; without o 5 erflowin<r, full." 
"Good men, in this frail, imperfect state are often found, 
not only in union with, but in opposition to, Uie views and 
conduct of one another." 

Sometimes when the word with which the Inst prepo- 
sition agrees, is single, it is better to omii the comma be- 
fore it : as, "Many states were in alliance witfaznd un- 
der the protection of Home." 

The same rule aa*i restrictions must be ? when 

two or more nouns ref«*r to the 3am> itioa": as, 

"He was composed hotiLunder the threatening, aod at 
the approach, ijfa cruel and lingering death : 3? "He was 
not only the king, but the father of his people^ 

Rule xiv. A remarkable expression, or a short obser- 
vation, somewhat in the manner of a quoi; v j o 
properly marked with a comma : as, '-if hurts-, raa'n'a 
pride to say, I do not know ;" "Plutarch calls lying, the 
vice of slaves," 



244 English gkammak. (Comma* 

Rule xy. Relative pronouns are connective words, 
and generally admit a comma before them : as, "He 
preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pi- 
ous life ;" Ci There is no charm in the female sex, which 
can supply the place of virtue." 

But when two members^ or phrases, are closely con- 
nected by a relative, restraining the general notion of 
the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should 
be omitted : as, * Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue 
must make ;" i( A man who is of a detracting, spirit, will 
misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put to- 
gether." In the latter example,, the assertion is not of 
"a man in general," but of "a man who is of a detractr 
lag spirit ;" and therefore they should not be separated. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which 
the relative is not expressed, but understood : as, "It 
was from piety, warm and unaffected, that his morals de- 
rived strength." "This sentiment, habitual and strong, 
klfltf^^I? 1 ^ urhole conduct.^ In both of these exam- 
ples, the relative and verb which was, are understood. 

Rule xvi. A simple member of a sentence, contained 
within another, or following another, must be distinguish- 
ed by the comma : as, "To improve time whilst we are 
blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." 
"Very often when we are complaining of the vanity, and 
the evils of human life, we make that vanity, and we in- 
crease those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are 
very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary : as, 
^Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its gov- 
erning verb, with several words between them, those 
words should generally have a comma at the end of them ; 
as, "It ill becomes -good and wise men, to oppose and de- 
grade one another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common, 
dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divid- 
ed by commas^: as, "To relieve the indigent, to comfort 
the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the de- 
serving are humane and noble employments." 

Rule xvii. When the verb to be is followed by a verb 
in the infioiliye mood, which, by transposition, might be 



Comma.) punctuation. 245 

made the nominative case to it, the former is generally 
separated from the latter verb, by a comma ; as, "The 
most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associa- 
tions with bad men." "The first and most obvious reme- 
dy agrlnst the infection, is, to withdraw from all associa- 
tions with bad men." 

Rule xvi n. When adjuncts or circumstances are of 
importance, and often when the natural order of them i3 
inverted, they may be set off by commas: as, "Virtue 
must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts/ 
but by daily and repeated exertions." "Vices, like 
shadows, towards the evening of life, grow great and 
monstrous." 'Our interests are interwoven by threads 
innumerable ;" "By threads innumerable our interests- 
are interwoven " 

Rule xix. Where a verb is understood, a riomma may 
often be properly introduced. This is a general rule, 
which, besides comprising some of the preceding rules, 
will apply to many cases not determined by any of them : 
as, "From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; 
from curiosity, knowledge." In this example, the verb 
"arises 1 is understood before "curiosity' and 'knowledge ;' 
at which words a considerable pause is necessary, 

Rule xx. The words, nay, so, kcncc, again, first, se- 
condly, formerly, now, lastly ^ once more, above all, on the 
contrary, in the next place, in short, and all other words 
and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separat- 
ed from the context by a comma .* as, "Remember thy 
best and first friend ;' formerly, the supporter of thy in- 
fancy, and the guide of thy childhood; now, the guardian 
of thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years." "He 
feared want, hence, he over-valued riches." "This con- 
duct h iy heal the difference, nay y \\ may constantly pre- 
vent any in future." "Finally, 1 shall only repeat what 
has been often justly said " "If the spring put forth no 
blossoms, in summer there will be no beaufy, and in au- 
tumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be triced away without im- 
provement, riper years may be contemptible, and old age 
miserable." 

In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great re- 
gard must be paid to the iength of the clauses and the 
proportion which they bear to one another. An attetw 
21* 



246 English grammar. (Semicolon* 

iion to the sense of any passage, and to the clear, easy 
communication of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid ofV 
the preceding rules, enable the student to adjust the pro* 
per pauses, and the places for inserting the commas. 

chapter it; 
OF THE SEMICOLON, 

The Semicolon is used for dividing; a com- 
poimd sentence into two or mora .parts*, not so* 
closely connected as those which are separated' 
by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each 
other, as those which are distinguished by a 
colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding 
member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete 
aense, but depends on the following clause : and some- 
times when the sense of that member would be complete 
without the concluding one : as in the following instan- 
ces : "As the desire of approbation, when it works ac- 
cording to reason, improves the amiable part of our spe- 
cies- in every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more 
destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and 
folly." 

'-Experience teaches us* that an entire retreat from 
worldly affairs, is not what religion requires; nor does it 
'even enjoin a loug retreat from them." 

"Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the 
?jottom.' ? 

"Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her 
operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in re- 
serve; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and 
that all future generations will continue to make discove- 
ri%s v 9f which we have not the least. idea-" 

CHAPTER J II. 
GF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into 
iwo or more-parted less connected than those 



Period.) punctuation*. 247 

which are separated by a semicolon ; but not 
so- independent as separate distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three fol- 
lowing cases. 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, 
but followed by some supplemental remark, or further il- 
lustration of the subject : as* ^Nature felt her inability 
to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt : the 
gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition and aid." 
"Nature confessed some atonement to be necessary : the 
gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connect- 
ing or concluding sentiment : as, "A divine legislator, 
littering his voice from heaven ; an almighty governor, 
stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing 
us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous*, 
and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these 
are the considerations which overawe the world, which 
support integrity, and check guilt." 

3. The Colon is commonly used wh«n an example, a 
quotation, or a speech i& introduced : as, "The Scrip- 
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in 
these words: 'God is love. r?5 "He was often heard to 
say : l I have done with; the world, and I am willing to 
leave it.' " 

The propriety of using a colon* or semicoloa, is some- 
times determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or 
not expressed : asj "Do not flatter yourselves with the 
hope of perfect happiness : there is no such thing in the 
world. - r "Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of 
perfect happiness ; for there is no such tiling in the 
world. 55 



CHAPTER IVi 
OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and indepen- 
dent, and not connected in construction with 
the following sentence, it is marked with a 
Period. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, (Daefi; 

Some senteuces are independent of each other, both in 
their sense and construction : as, "Fear God. Honour 
the king. Have charity towards all men" Others are 
independent only in their grammatical construction: as r 
'•The Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire to 
promote our happiness, or in the plan of his administra- 
tion. One light always shines upon us from above. One 
clear and direct path is always pointed -out to man" 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two sen- 
tences though- they- are joined by <x disjunctive or copu- 
lative conjunction. For the quality of the point does not 
always depend on the connective nantkie, but on the 
sense and structure of sentences : as, u Recreations, 
though they may be of an* innocent kind, require steady 
government, to keep them wiihin a due and limited pro- 
vince. But such as are of an irregular and vicious na- 
ture, are not Co be governed, but to be banished from' 
every well-regulated" mind." 

"He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice 
of the world, is* of alt men. the least likely to avoid cen- 
sure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that 
will narrowly inspect him in every part." 

The period should be used after every abbreviated- 
word: as,. 'M.S. P. S.N.B. A..D, 0. S. N. S." 

CHAPTER V. 

Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation, &e. 

THE DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and 
Incoherent writers, maybe introduced with propriety, 
•♦where the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a signifi- 
cant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected 
turn in the sentiment :# as, "If thou art he, so much re- 
spected once— but, off! how fallen ! how degraded I* ' If 
acting conformably to the will of our Creator ;— -if pro- 
moting the welfare of mankind around -ire-; — if securing 
our own happiness; — are objects of the highest moment: 
— then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and ex- 
tend the great interests of religion and virtue." 

"Here lies the sreat False marble, where? 



Interrogation.) punctuation. 249 

Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse,, 
there are others, which denote a different modulation of 
voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are, 

The Interrogation point, ? 

The Exclamation poiut,. ! 

The Parenthesis. ( ) 

I NT E R R OG AT ION. 

A note of "Interrogation is used at the end of an interro- 
gative sentence ; that is, when a question is asked : as, 
"Who will accompany me?" ""Shall we always be friends?" 

Questions which a person asks himseif in contempla- 
tion, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation ; 
as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beau- 
ty ?" "At whose command do the planets perform their 
Constant revolutions ?" 

A poiut of interrogation is improper after sentences 
which are not questions, but only expressions of admira- 
tion, or of some other emotion. 

"How many instances have Ave of chastity and excel- 
lence in the fair sex XV 

With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us 
in the choice of our companions ?" 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in ca- 
ses where it is only said a question has been asked, and 
where the words are not used as a question "The Cy- 
prians asked me, wby I wept." To give this sentence 
the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus : "The> 
Cyprians said to me. 'Why dost thou weep i'." 

EXCLAMATION. 

The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of 
sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief. &c. and also to invo- 
cations or addresses ; as, "My friend ! this conduct ama- 
zes me !" "Bless the Lord, 6 my soul! and forget not 
ail his benefits!" 

"Oh! had we both our humble state maintained, 

And safe in peace and poverty remain'd !" 

"Hear me, O Lord! for thy loving kindness Is great .!" 

It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an 

interrogative and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence,. 

in which any wonder or admiration is expressed, and no 



250 English grammar. (Parenthesis. 

answer either expected or implied, may be always pro- 
perly terminated by a note of exclamation : as, "How 
much vanity in the pursuits of men !" "Who can suffi- 
ciently express the goodness of our Creator !" "What is 
more amiable than virtue P 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeter- 
minate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent 
in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the 
sense may require. They mark an elevation of the voice. 
; The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclama-. 
tion. appears from the following examples, in which the 
meaning is signified and discriminated solely by the points 

"What condescension !*' 

"What condescension ?" 

"How great was the sacrifice !" 
kflpw great was the sacrifice?'" 

PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary in- 
formation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a: 
Sentence obliquely, and wfcich may be omitted without in- 
juring the grammatical construction : as, 

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,- 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 
44 And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid 
(What can exalt his bounty more '/) for thee." 

"To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or 
five letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion."* 
'Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to' them that know 
the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man a3 
long as he iiveth ?" 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides 
with the res? of the sentence, \i is not proper to- use the 
parenthetical characters. The following instances are 
therefore improper uses of th^ parenthesis, ''Speak you 
(who saw) his wonders in the deep." "Every planer (as 
the Creator has made nothing in vain) is most -probably 
inhabited." "He found them asleep again ; (for their eyes 
were heavy ;) neither knew they what to answer him ?■' 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the 
voice, and may be accompanied with every point which 
the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters 



PUNCTUATION. 251 

were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind 
of stop which the member has, that precedes it ; and to 
contain that stop within the parenthetical marks. We 
must, however, except cases of interrogation arid excla- 
mation : as -While they wish to please, (and why should 
they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonourable means." 
'*it\\as represented by an analogy, (Oh, how indequate!) 
which wa3 borrowed from paganism." See the Octavo 
Grammar, on this subject. 

There are other characters, which are frequently made 
use of in composition, and whxh may be explained in 
this place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or 
shorten a word : as, His ior it is ; tho' for though ; e'en for 
even ; judged for judged. Its chief use is to show the 
genitive case of nouns : as, t; A man's property; a wo- 
man's ornament.'' 

A Caret, marked thus a is placed where some word 
happens to be left out in writing, and which is inserted 
over the line. This mark is also called a circumflex, 
when placed over a particular vowel, to denote a long 
syllable: as, * ; Euphra'es." 

A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting 
compounded words ; as, ''Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-cxistence, 
self-love, tomorrow, mother-in-law." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former 
partis written or printed at the end of one line, and the 
latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it Is 
placed at the end of the &rsi line, riot at the beginning 
of the second. 

The Acute Accent, marked thus ' : as, ^F&ici;." The 
Grave thus * : as, •• Favour/' 

In English, the Accentual marks nre chiefly used in 
spelling- books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables 
which require a particular stress of the voice in pronun- 
ciation. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscri- 
minately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, 
5ome writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the 
3rmer, and the acute on the latter, in this manner: "Ml- 
lor, mineral, lively, livid, rival, river*' 5 



.252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The proper mark to distinguish along syllable, is this " : 
as, "Rosy :" and a short one this v ; as, < l Folly." This 
last mark is called a breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked ", consists of two points pla- 
ced over one of the two vowels that would otherwise 
make a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables : as. 
"Creator, coadjutor, aerial." 

A Section marked thus §, is the division of a -discourse, 
or chapter, into less parts or portions. 

A Paragraph IT denotes the beginning of a new sub- 
ject, or a. sentence not connected with the foregoing. 
This character Is chiefly used in the Old, and in the New 
Testaments. 

A Quotation " ,? . Two inverted commas are generally 
placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which 
is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in 
bis own words; and two commas in their direct position, 
are placed at the conclusion : as, 

"The proper study of mankind is man.' 5 

Crotchets or Brackets [ ] serve to enclose a word or 
sentence, which is to be explained in a note, or the ex- 
planation itself, or a word or a sentence which is intend- 
ed to supply some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 

An Index or Hand Q^jr points out a remarkable pas- 
sage, or something that requires particular attention. 

A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or 

three lines, which have the same rhyme. 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words with 
one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repe- 
tition in writing or printing. 

An Asterisk, or little star % directs the reader to some 
note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two 
cr three asterisks generally denote the omission of some 
letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expres- 
fricni) or some defect in the manuscript. 

An Ellipsis — i3 also used, when some letters in a 
\ford, or home words in a verse, are omitted ; as, "The 
k — g,*' for '• : i he king.* 

An Obelibk, which is marked thus f, and Parallels 
thus ||, together with the letters of the alphabet, and fig- 
ures, are Used as references to the margin, or bottom oC 
the page. 



mjNCTUATION, £?o 

PARAGRAPHS. 

It may not be improper (o insert, in this place, a few 
general directions respecting the division of a composi- 
tion into paragraphs. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very 
numerous in small compass, should be separated into pa- 
ragraphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, 
the larger divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. 
And it will have a good effect to form the breaks, when it 
can properly be done, at sentiments of the most weight, 
or that call for peculiar attention, 

The facts, premises, ami conclusions, of a subject 
sometimes naturally point out the separation* into para- 
graph?: and each of these, when of great length, will 
Igain require subdivisions at their most - distinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be form- 
ed into^evera! par* graphs, a suitable turn of expression, 
exhibiting the connexion o the broken parts, will give 
beauty and force to the division. Ste the Octavo Grammar. 

directions respecting the use 0/" capital letters. 

It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with 
a capital : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave 
the writing or printing a crowded and confused appear- 
ance, it has been discoiainuecl. It is, however, very 
proper to begin with a capital, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note. 
Or an j 7 other piece of writing* 

2. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sen- 
tences are totally independent, after a note of interroga- 
tion or exclamation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sen- 
tences, are (brown into one general group; or If the 
construction of the latter sentences depends on the for- 
mer, all of iheix), except the first, may begin with a small 
letter: as, "Bow long, ye simple ones, will ye love sim- 
plicity ? and the scoiners delight in their scorning; ? and 
fools hate knowledge T\ "Alas! how different! yet how 

le same V* 
J S. The appellations of the Deity: as, "God, Jehovah , 
22 



'254 ENGLISH GRAMMAXU 

the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, 
the Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
rivers, ships: as, "George, York, the Strand, the Alps, 
the Thames, the Seahorse.' 5 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; 
as, "Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
colon, or when it is in a direct form : as, 'Always re- 
member this ancient maxim: 'Know thyself.' " -Our 
great Lawgiver says, 'Take up ihy cross daily, and fol- 
low me.' " But when a quotation is brought in obliquely 
after a comma, a capital is unnecessary : as, "Solomon 1 
observes, 'that pride goes before destruction. " 

The first 7>ord of an example may also very properly 
begin with a capital : as, "Temptation proves our 
virtue." 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 
books : as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Lan- 
guage;'' "Thomson's Seasons;" "Rollings Ancient 
History." 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are written 
in capitals: as, "1 write:" "Hear, O earth!" 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with 
capitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the 
iP ; ffincipal subject of the composition. 






( 255 ) 



APPENDIX. 

CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING YOUNG 
PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY, TO 
BE STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED A COMPETENT 
KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLrlSH GRAMMAR, 



PERSPICUITY 

78 the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essen- 
tial in every kind of writing, that for the want ot it no- 
thing can atone. It is not to be considered as merely a 
sort of negative virtue, or freedom from defect. It has 
Signer merit : it i* a degree of positive beauty. We are 
pleased with an author, and consider him as deserving 
praise, who frees us from all fatigue of searching for his 
meaning ; who carries us through hi3 subject without any 
embarrassment or confusion; whose style flows always 
like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very 
bottom. 

The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression 
consists of two parts : and requires attention, first, to Sin- 
gle Words and Phrases ; and then, to the Construction of 
Smitnccs* 

PART I. 

Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with' 
respect to single Words and Phrases. 

These qualities of style, considered with regard to 
words and phrases, require the following properties; 

PURITY, PROPRIETY, and PRECISION. 
CHAPTER T. 

OF PURITY. 
Purity of style consists in th^ use of such words, and 
such constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language 



256 appendix. (Propriety. 

which we speak; in opposition to words and phrases that 
are taken from other languages, or that are ungrammati- 
cai, obsolete, new-coined, or used without proper authori- 
ty. Ail such words .and phrases as the following, should 
he avoided .- Quoth he ; I wist not ; erewhite ; behest ; \ 
selfsame ; delicate sse, for delicacy ; poll teste, for polite- 
ness ; hauteur, for haughtiness ; incumberment y connexiiy, 
martyrised, for encumbrance, connexion, martyred. 

Foreign and learned words* unless where necessity re- 
quires them, should never be admitted into our composi- 
tion. Barren languages may need such assistance, hut 
ours is not one of these. A multitude of Latin words, in 
particular, have, of late, been poured in upon our lan- 
guage. On some occasions, they give an appearance of 
elevation and dignity to style ; but they often render it 
stiff and apparently forced. In general, a plain, native 
style, is more intelligible to all readers ; and, by a pro- 
per management of words, it can be made as strong and 
expressive as this Latinised English, or any foreign idi- 
orns. 

eilAPTERTI* 

OF PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language is the selection of such words 
as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas, which 
we intend to express by them ; in opposition to low ex- 
pressions ? and to words and phrases which would be less 
significant of the ideas that we mean to convey. Style ma; 
be- pure, that is, it may be strictly English, without Scot- 
ticisms or Gallicisms, or ungrammatical, irregular expres 
sions of any kind, ^nd may, nevertheless, he deficient ir 
propriety : for the words may be ill chosen, not adapted 
to the subject, nor fully expressive of the author's sense. 

To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and 
phrases, we must avoid low expressions; supply ?vords 
that are wanting ; be careful not to use the same word in 
different senses ; avoid the injudicious use of technical 
phrases, equivocal or ambiguous words, Unintelligible ex- 
pressions, and all such words and phrases as are not adapt- 
ed to our meaning. 

1. Avoid low expressions : such as r "Topsy turvy< 



■ 

Propriety.) perspicuity, &c. 25 7 

hurly burly, pellmell ; having a month'3 mind for a thing; 
carrying fay pur with a person ; dancing attendance on 
the great," &c. 

"Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves,, 
were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence." The 
phrase x Hcft to shift for themselves,'' is rather a low phrase, 
and too much in the familiar style to be proper in a grave 
treatise. 

2. Supply words that are wanting. "Arbitrary power 
J look upon as a, greater evil than anarchy itse'f, as much 
as a savage is a happier state of life than a slave at the 
oar :" it should have been, 'as much as the stale of a 
savage is happier than that of a slave at the oar." "He 
has not treated this -subject liberally, by the views of oth- 
ers as well as his own ;" "By adverting; io the views of 
others," would have been better. ' "This generous action 
greatly increased his former services ■;" it should have 
been, 'greatly increased the wtm'fof his former services. 5 
"By the pleasures of the imagination or fancy (which I 
shall use promiscuously) I here mean." &c This passage 
ought to have had the word "terms" supplied, which 
would have made it correct : "terms which I shall use 
promiscuously." 

It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles 
and prepositions are sometimes improperly omitted ; as in 
the following instances: "How immense the difference 
between the pious and profane ?" 'Death is the com- 
mon lot of all ; of good men and bad/' They should 
have had the article and preposition repeated : "How 
Immense the difference between the pious and the pro- 
fane !" "Death is the common lot of all ; of good men 
ami of bad." J 

The repetition of articles and prepositions is proper, 
when we intend to point out the objects of which we 
speak, as distinguished from each other, or in contrast ; 
and when we wish that Vae reader's attention should rest 
on that distinction ; as, "Our sight is at once the most de- 
lightful and the most useful of ail our senses." 

3. In the same sentence be careful not io use (he idme 

word too frequently, nor in diffcra* senses. -One may 

rliave an. air which proceeds 'from a just sufficiency and 

knowledge of the matter before him ; which may naturally 



#& appendix. (Propriety, 

prodi:ce some motions of his head and body, which might 
become the bench better than the bar." 

The pronoun which is here thrice used in such a man- 
ner as to throw obscurity over the. sentence. 

' Gregory favoured the undertaking for no other rea- 
son than this that the manager, in countenance, favour- 
ed Iks friend." it should, have been, .."resembled- his- 
friend." 

^Stemty expands our hearts in love to -God and man : 
it is by the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and 
the poor supplied," In this -sentence, the word 'charity" 
is improperly used in two different senses, for the highest 
benevolence, and for almsgiving. 

4. Avoid ike i?ijudicions -us$ of technical terms To in- 
form those who do not understand sea-phrases, that u We 
tacked to the larboard, and stood off. to sea," would be ex- 
pressing ourselves very obscurely. Technical phrases 
not being in current use, but only the peculiar dialect of 
a particular class, we should never use them but when we 
know they will be understood. 

5. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The following 
sentences are exceptionable in this respect. "As for 
such animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right 
lo destroy them" "I long since learned to like nothing 
but what, you dfe." 'He ainrn! at nothing less than the 
crown," may denote either, 'Nothing was less aimed at 
by him than the crown, or "Nothing inferior to the crown 
could satisfy his ambition." Ci I will have mercy, and not 
sacrifice." The first part of this sentence denotes* "I will 
exercise mercy ;" whereas it is in this- p_l ace employed 
to signify, * I require others to exercise it." The transla- 
tion should therefore have been accommodated to these 
different meanings. 'They were both much more an- 
cient, among the Persians, than Zoroaster or Zerdusht." 
The or in this sentence i3 equivocal. It serves either 
as a copulative to synonymous words, or as a disjunctive 
of different things. If, therefore, the student should not 
know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same per- 
son, he will mistake the sense. "The rising tomb a }of(y 
column bore :" ''And thus the son the fervent sire ad- 
drest." Did the the tomb bear the column, or the col- 
umn the tomb ? Hid the son address the sire, or the sire- 
^he sop L' "■ ' 



Propriety) perspicuity, &e. 2bQ ; 

6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases, 
"I have observed," says Steele, c lhat the superiority a- 
inoiig these coffeehouse politicians, * proceeds from an o- 
pinion of gallantry and fashion." This sentence, consid- 
ered in itself evidently conveys no meaning. First, it 
is not said whose opinion, their own, or^hat of others : 
Secondly, it is Dot said what opinion, or of what sort, fa- 
vourable or unfavourable, trus or false, but in general, 
"an opinion of gallantry and fashion," which contains no 
definke expression of any meaning. With the joint as- 
sistance of the context, reflection, and conjecture, we 
shall perhaps conclude that he author intended to say ; - 
"That the rank among these politicians was determined 
by the opinion generally entertained of the rank, in point 
of g iflaatry and fashion, that each of them had attained.' 5 

"This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of 
humility, * 'keeps our understanding tight about us." 
Whether the author had any meaning in this expression, 
or what it was, is not easy to determine. 

Sometimes a writer runs on in a specious verbosity, a- 
musing his reader with synonymous terms and identical 
propositions, well-turned periods, and high sounding 
words ; but at the same time, using those words so indefi- 
nitely, thit the reader can either affix no meaning at all - 
to them, or m^y affix to them almost any meaning he 
pleases. 

'ii' it is asked," says a late writer, "whence arises the 
humony, or beauty of language 2 what are the rules for 
obtaining it ? the *;iswer is obvious. Whatever renders 
a period sweet and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A 
good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much improved, 
but not acquire! by art. Whoever is possessed of it. will 
scarcely tieni dry critical precepts to enable him tojudge 
of a true rhythmus, and melody of composition. Just 
numhe«s, accurate proportions, a musical symphony, mag- 
nificent figures, and that decorum which is the result of 
all ihese, are unison to the human mind." 

The following is a poetical example of the same nature^ 
m wh'th there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though i 
as composed by an eminent poet, 



280 appendix. (Propriety. 

From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 
This universal frame began : 
From harmony to harmony 
Thro' all the compass of the notes it ran, 
The diapason closing full in man. 




In general, ittnay be said, that in writings of tl. t . 
we must accept of sound instead of -sense ; being assured, 
that if we meet with little that can inform Uiejudgmeit 
we shall at least find nothing that: will oilend the ear! 
And perhaps this is one reason that we pivss over such 
smooth language, without suspecting that it contains litre 
or no meaning.. In order to write or speak clearly atui 
intelligibly, two things are especially requisite : one, that 
we have clear and distinct ideas of our subject ; and the 
other, that our words be approved signs of those ideas. 
That persons who think confusedly, should express them- 
selves obscurely, is not to be wondered at ; for embarrass- 
ed, obscure; and feeble sentences, are generally, if not 
aftvays, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble 
thought; but that persons of judgment, who are accus- 
tomed to scrutinize their ideas, and the signification of 
their words, should sometimes write without any mean- 
ing, is, at first sight, matter of admiration. This, how- 
ever, when further considered, appears to be an effect de- 
li ved from the same cause, indistinctness of conception, 
and inattention to the exact import of words. The oc- 
casionr on which we are most apt to speak and write in 
txiis unintelligible manner, are the three following. 

The first is, where there is an exuberance of meta- 
phor* Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are 
generally disposed to continue it too long, and to pursue 
it too far. 

They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on 
the several properties of a metaphor which they have 
ushered into the discourse, without taking the trouble to 
examine whether there are any qualities in the subject, 
to^wbieb these properties can, with justice and perspicu- 
ity, be applied. The following instance of this sort of 
writing is from an author of considerable eminence. 
"Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of 
lining their view inward, in order to explore the inte- 



Propriety.) perspicuity, Arc. 261 

rior regions and recesses of (he mind, the hollow caverns 
of <Ieep thought the private 3eats of fancy, and the wasted 
and wildernesses as well as the more fruitful and culti- 
vated tracts of this obscure climate." A most wonder- 
ful way of telling us, that it is difficult to trace the opera- 
tions of the mind The author having determined to 
represent the human mind under the metaphor of a coun- 
try, revolved in his thoughts the various objects which 
might be found in a country, without considering whether 
there are any things in the mind properly analogous ta 
these. Hence the strange parade he makes with regions- 
and recesses, hollow caverns and private seals, wastes and 
I messes, fruitful and cultivated tracts ; words which, 
though they have a precise meaning, as applied to coun- 
try, have no definitive signification, as applied to mind. 

The second occasjdfi of our beingapt to write unintelli- 
gibly, is ihat wherein the terms most frequently occur- 
ring, denote things which are of a complicated nature,, 
and to whicb the mind is not sufficiently familiarised. Of 
these the instances are numberless in every tongue ; such 
as. Government, church, state, constitution, power, le- - 
gislature, jurisdiction. <£ c. 

The -third and principal occasion of unintelligible writ-- 
fcig, is, when the terms employed are \evj abstract, and' 
consequently of very extensive signification. Thus the' 
word lion is more distinctly apprehended by the mind 
than the word beast, beast than animal animal than being. 

Tils- 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our 

words and phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not a- 

I to the idea$ we mean to communicede ; or which are 

less significant than others, oftho.se ideas. u h\e i'eeh any 

ow that can arrive at man ;"" better c happen to man." 

VThe conscience of apj»roj>Jpg oiteVsetf a benefactor, is 

the best recompense for being so ;" it shorid have been 

. 'He firmly believed the divine precipt, 

'There is not a sparrow falis to the ground,' " &c. It 

should have been "doctrine" 

<fc It is hut opening the eye, and the seme enters." A 
scene cannot be said to enter : an actcr- enters ; but a scene 

(appears or presents itself*. 
'We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, 
, without inquiring into the causes of it ; " it is proper to 



262 appendix* (Precision;. 

say, that we assent to the truth of a proposition ; but it' 
cannot so well be said that we assent to the beauty of an 
object. Acknowledge would have expressed the sense with 
propriety. 

"The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion 
of extension, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the 
eye, except colours." Extension and shape can, with no 
propriety, be calied ideas; they are properties of matter. 
Neither is it accurate, to speak of any sense giving us a 
notion of ideas :. our senses give us the ideas themselves. 
The meaning of the sentence would have been proper, 
and much clearer, if the author had expressed himself 
thus : 'The sense of feeling can, indeed, give U3 the idea 
of extension, figure, and all the other properties of mat- 
ter, which are perceived by the eye, except colours." 

'•The covetous man never has a sufficiency ; although 
he has what is enough for nature," is much inferior to, 
u The covetous man never has enough ; although he has 
what is sufficient for nature." 

"A traveller observes the most striking objects he 
sees ; a general remarks all the motions of his enemy ;" 
belter thus; <A traveller remarks;' &c. "A general ob- 
serves."' &c. "This measure enlarged his school, and 
obliged him to increase the buildings;" it should be, ^in- 
creased his school ;"' and "enlarge the buildings." 

"He applied a medicine before the poison had time to 
work;" better thus, <>He applied an antidote," Sic. 

"The poison of- a •suspicious temper frequently throws 
out its bad qualities, on all who are within its reach 5" 
better, "throws out its malignant qualities." 

"I will go except I should be ill;" *I saw them all 
unless two or three :" corrected thus ; 'unless I should 
be ill;" 'except two or three." 

A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly 
expressive of the ideas we design to communicate; or 
which are as particular and determinate in their signifi- 
cation, as is consistent with the nature and the scope of 
the discourse; possesses great beauty, and cannot fail to 
produce a good effect. 



precision.) perspicuity, &c. 2fSB 

CHAPTER III. 
t 

OF PRECISION. 

Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with 
respect to words and phrases. It signifies retrenching 
superfluities, and pruning the expression, so as to exhibit 
neither wore nor less than an exact copy of the person's 
idea who uses it. 

The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three 
respects. 1st. They may not express the idea which the 
author intends, butsorae other which only resem les it; 
secondly, They may express that idea, but not fully and 
completely; thirdly, They may express it, together with 
something more than is intended. Precision stands op- 
posed to these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Pro- 
priety implies a freedom from the two former faults. The 
words which are used may be prqper ; that is. they may 
express the idea intended, and they may express it fully; 
but to be precise, signifies that they express that idea and 
K?io more. 

The use and importance of precision may he dedu- 
ced from the nature of the human mind. It never can * 
view, clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a 
time. If it must look at two or three together, especially 
objects that have resemblance or connexion, it finds it- 
self confused and embarrassed. It -cannot clearly perceive 
in what they agree, and in what they differ. Thus, were 
any object, suppose some animal, to be presented to my 
view, of whose structure I wished to form a distinct no- 
tion, I should desire all its trappings to be taken off; I 
should require it to be brought before me by itself, and 
to stand alone, that there might be nothing to divide my 
attention. The same is the case with words. If, when 
any one would inform me of his meaning, he also tells 
me more than what conveys it ; if he joins foreign cir- 
cumstances to the principal objects ; if, by unnecessarily 
varying the expression, he shifts the point of view, and 
makes me see sometimes the object itself, and some times 
another thing that is connected with it, he thereby obliges 
me to look on several objects at once, and I lose sight of 
the principal. He loads the animal he is showing me, 
with so many trappings and collars, that 1 cannot distinct- 



2M appendix. (Propriety 

!y view it ; or he brings so many of ihe same species be- 
fore me, somewhat resembling and yet somewhat differ- 
mg, that I see none of them clearly. When an author 
talis me of his hero's courage in the day of battle, the 
expression is precise, .and i irtiderstand it fully j but if 
from the desire of rrrn%]ying words, he should praise 
his courage an J fortitude; at ihe moment he joins these 
words together, my idea begins to waver. He means to 
express one qualiiy more strongly, hut he is in truth ex- 
pressing two : courage resists danger : fortitude supports 
p/vki The occasion of exerting each of these qualities 
is different; and being led to think of both together, 
wh-n only one of them should be considered my view is 
rendered unsteady, and my conception of the otje 
distinct. 

All subjects do not equally require precision. It is si 
ficient, on nnny occasions that we have a general vie, 
of the meaning. The subject, perhaps, is of the knowi, 
and familiar kind, and we are in no hazard of mistaking 
the sense of the author, though every word which he 
•uses is not; precise and exact. 

Many authors ofieud against this rule of precision. 
considerable one, in Ascribing a bad action, expre 
himself thus : u lt is to remove a good and orderly a„. 
tion, and to introduce an ill or disorderly one ; to commit 
an action that is ill, immoral, and unjust; to do ill, or to 
act in prejudice of integrity good nature, and worth." 

A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is brought to- 
gether by some authors, who, afraid of expressing them- 
selves in a common and ordinary manner, and allured by 
an appearance of splendour, surround every thing which 
they mean to say with a certain copious loquacity. 

The great source of a loose style in opposition to pre- 
cision, is the injudicious use of the words termed synony- 
mous. They are called synonymous, because they agree 
in. expressing one principal idea; but. for the most part, 
if not always, they express it with some diversity in the 
circumstances. 

The following instances show a difference in the mean- 
ing of words reputed synonymous, and point out the use 
of attending, with care and strictness, to the exact import 
of w r ords. 



Precision.) perspicuitt, &c. 205 

Custom, habit. — Custom, respects the action ; habit, the 
actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of 
the same act; by habit, the effect which that repetition 
produces on the mind or body. By the cintom of walk- 
ing often in the streets, one acquires a habit of idleness. 

Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves; va- 
nity makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just 
to say, that a man is too proud to be vain. 

Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the 
high opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the 
low opinion we have of others. 

Only, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of the 
I same kind ; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. 
An only child, is one that has neither brother nor sister ; 
a child alone. i3 one who is left by itself. There is a 
difference, therefore, in precise language, between these 
two phrases : "Virtue only makes us happy ;" and "Vir- 
tue alone makes us happy." 

Wisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and, act 
what is most proper. Prudence, prevents our speaking 
or acting improperly. 

Entire, complete*— A thing is entire, by wanting none of 
its parts : complete, by wanting none of the appendages 
that belong to it. A man may have an entire house to 
himself, and yet not have one complete apartment. 

Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. — I am smv 
prised with what is new or unexpected; I am astonished 
at what i3 vast or great ; I am amazed at what is incom- 
prehensible; I am confounded by what is shocking or 
terrible. 

Tranquillity, peace, calm. — Tranquillity, respects a si- 
' tuation free from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the 
same situation with respect to any causes that might in- 
terrupt it; calm, with regard to a disturbed situation 
| going before or following it. A good man enjoys tran- 
quillity, in himself; peace, with others; and calm, after 
the storm. 

These are some of \\\?. numerous instances of words, 

it in our languai tificalions approach, but are 

i precisely il The more the distinction in the 

D3 of such words is attended to, the more clearly 

I and forcibly shall we speak or write. It may not, on all 

2:J 



238 appendix* (Prec; 



Uioru 
mtion 



occasions, be necessary to pay a great deal of attentioi 
to very nice distinctions; yet the foregoing instances show 
the utility of some general care to understand the distinct 
import of our words. 

While we are attending to precision, we must be on 
our guard, le3t, from the desiA of pruning too closely, 
we retrench all copiousness. Scarcely In any language 
are there two words that convey precisely the same idea ; 
a person thoroughly conversant in the propriety of the 
language, will always be able to observe something that 
distinguishes them. As they are like different shades of 
the same colour, an accurate writer can employ them to 
great advantage, by using them so as to heighten and 
complete the object which he presents to us. He sup- 
plies by one what was wanting in the other .to the strength, 
or to the finishing, of the image wiiich he means to ex- 
hibit. But, for this purpose, he must be attentive to the 
choice of his words, and not employ them carelessly, 
merely for the sake of filling up a period, or of rounding 
or diversifying his language, as if their signification were 
exactly the same, while. in truth it is not. To unite co- 
piousness and precision, to be full and easy, and at the 
same time correct and exact in the choice of every word, 
is no doubt one of the highest and most difficult attain- 
nients in writing. 

PART II. 

OF PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY OF EXPRESSION, WITH RE- 
SPECT TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, 
nor very short : long ones require close attention to make 
■us clearly perceive the connexion of the several parts ; 
and short ones are apt to break the "sense, and weaken 
the connexion of thought. Yet occasionally they may 
both be used with force and propriety; as may be seen 
in the following sentences. 

If you look about you, and consider the lives of others 
as well as your own; if you think how few are born with 
honour, and how many die --without name or children; 
flow little beauty we see, and how few friends we hear 
of; how much poverty, and how many diseases there are 
iia the world ; you will fall down upon your knees. an$ 



Clearness.) perspicuity, Arc. 

instead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many- 
blessings which yon have received from the Divine hand." 
This is a sentence composed of several members linked 
together, and hanging upon one another, so that the sense 
of the whole is not brought out till the close. The 
following is an example of one in which the sense 
is formed into short independent propositions, each com- 
plete within itself. u l confess, it was want of considera- 
tion that made me an author. 1 wrote beer. use it amused 
me. I corrected, because it was as pleasant to me to 
correct as to write. I published, because I was told I 
might please such £3 it was a credit to please,' 5 

A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner 3 
and with the same number of members-, should never he 
allowed to succeed one another. A long succession of 
either long or short sentences should also be avoided ; for 
the ear tires of either of them when too long continued. 

Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods^ 
and of periods variously constructed, not only the ear is 
gratified ; but animation and force are given to our style. 

We now proceed to consider the things most essential to 

ccurate and a perfect sentence. They appear to be 

the four following: 1. clearness. 2. unity- 3. strength* 

4. A JUDICIOUS USE OF THE FIGURES of SPEECH. 
CHAPTER I. 

OF THE CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE,; 
Purity, propriety, and precision in w^ds and phrases* 
separately cGiisidered,Jbave already been explained- and 
shown to be accessary to perspicuous and accurate wri- 
ting. The just relation of sentences, and the parts of sen- 
tences, to one another^ and the due arrangement oi the 
: r -, are the . u. 

The first requisite c cA Beia.teu.ce is cUarmvs. 

Whaler eel * to 

the meaning, ought to be avoided. 
two causes ; either from a wrong choice •;. ; 
wrong arrangement of them. The choice 
phrases-, as far 

idered. The < n of iher.. 

iteration. 

tng to he studied here, U 



268 appendix. (Clear 

priety. But as the grammar of our language is compara- 
tively not extensive, there may be an obscure order of 
words, where there is no transgression of any grammatical 
rule. The relations, of words, or members of a period, are, 
with us, ascertained only by the position in which they 
stand. Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences 
is, that the words or members, most clearly related, should 
be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possi- 
ble, so as to make their mutual relation clearly appear. 
It will be proper to produce some instances, in order to 
show the importance of this rule. . 

1. In the position of adverbs. "The Romans understood 
liberty, at least, as well as we," These words are capable 
of two different senses, according as the emphasis, in 
reading then?, is laid upon liberty, or upon at least. The 
words should have been thus arranged : "The Romans 
understood liberty as well, at least, as we." 

"-Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or athe- 
ism." Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else 
besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism ? This 
is what the words literally import, through the wrong pla- 
cing of the adverb only. It should have been, "Theism 
can be opposed only to polytheism or atheism." 

"By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only 
such pleasures as arise original! j r from sight." When it 
is said, "I mean only such pleasures" it may be remarked, 
that the adverb only is not properly placed. It is not hi^ 
ivnded here to qualify the word mean } but such pleasures ; 
and therefore should have been placed in as close con- 
nexion as possible with the word which it limits or qua- 
lifies. The style becomes more clear and neat, when the 
words are arranged thus : "By the pleasures of the ima- 
gination, I mean such pleasures only as arise from sight." 

hi the fallowing sentence, the word more is not in its 
proper place:* u There is not, perhaps, any real beauty 
or deformity more in one piece of matter than another." 
The phrase ought to have stood thus .- "Beauty or defor- 
mity in one piece of matter more than in another." 

2. In the position of circumstances, and of particular 
members. 

An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses 
j&W&lt: "Are these designs, which any man, who is bora 



CIear::c- perspicuity, &c. 

a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to 

he ashamed or afraid to avow V' Here we are left at a 

loss, whether these words, '-'in any circumstances, in any 

j situation," are connected with u a man born in Britain, 

in any circumstances or situation," or with that man's 

'avowing his designs in any circumstances or situation 

into which he may be brought/ 5 As it is probable that 

Litter was intended, the arrangement ought to hi 

iducted thus: ^Are these designs which any 

man, who is born a Billon, ought to be ashamed or afraid, 

in any situation, in any circumstances, to avow P' 

The following is another instance of a wrong ariange- 
tt of circumstances. U A great stone that 1 hap- • 
to find, after a long search, by the sea 3hore, served me 
br an anchor." One would think that the search was 
v i hiod to the sea shore; but as the meaning is, that' 
the great stone was found by the sea shore, the period, 
ought to have run thus : "A great stone, that, after a long 
search, I happened to find by the sea shore, served me 
for an anchor." 

It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances 
together, but rather to intersperse them in different parts 
of the sentence, joined whh the prineij - on which 

they depend. For -instance : U W hat I bad the opportu- 
nity of mentioning to my friend, sometime ago, in con- 
versation, was not a new thought." These two circum- 
stances, ''sometime ago r Zind 'in ccnvcrs<iiion^- which are 
her, would have had a better eifect disjoin- 
"What I had the opportunity, sometime ago> 
toning to my friend in /conversation, was not a 

; e follows an example of the wrong arrangement or 
a member of a senteuee. u TJbe minister of state who 
s less by his elevation, like a little statue placed on 
a mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong 
dnoL"; Here,, so far as can be gathered from (lie 
agement, it is doubtful whether the object introduced, 
| by way of simile, relates to what goes before, or to what 
i follows. The ambiguity is removed by the following 
oitler. "The minister of state who like a Utile s* 
ed on a ml^aty pedestal, govs less by his e 
ys," occ 



2 TO - appendix. (Clearness, 

Words expressing filings connected in the thought, 
ought to be placed as near together as possible, even 
to hen their separation would convey no ambiguity. This 
will be seen in the following passages from Addison. 
"For the English are oat orally fanciful, and very often- 
disposed by that gloominess and melancholy of temper,. 
which are so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions 
an;l extravagancies, to which others are not so liable." 
Here the verb or assertion is, by a pretty long circum- 
stance, separated from the subject to which it refers. 
This might have been easily prevented, by placing the 
circumstance before the verb, thus: "For the English 
are naturally fanciful, and by that gloominess and melan- 
choly of temper which are so frequent in our nation, are 
often disposed to many wild notions," &c. 

"For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicis- 
situde of things, knows to what use his works may, some 
time or other, be applied ," &c. Better thus : "For as, 
in the ordinary fat© and vicissitude of things, no mortal 
author knows to what use, some time or other, his works. 
may be applied," Sic. 

From these examples, ihe following observations will 
occur; that a circumstance ought never to be placed be- 
tween two capital members of a period; but. either be- 
tween the parts of the member to which it belongs, or in 
: --:i^,h a manner as will confine it to its proper member. 
When the sense admits it, the sooner a circumstance is 
introduced, generally speaking, the better, that the more 
important and significant words may possess the last place, 
quite disencumbered. The following sentence is, in this, 
irspeci, faulty. "The Emperor was so intent on the 
establishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that he 
exposed the empire doubly to desolation and ruin for ihe 
sake of it." Better thus; "Thai for the sake of it, he. 
e^pefeed the empire doubly to desolation and ruin." 

This appears .to be a proper place to observe, that when 
-visYerenr things have an obvious relation to each other, in 
\ aspect to Ike order of nature or time, that order should be 
Regarded, in assigning (hem their places in the sentence; 
unless VaQ scope of the passages require it to be varied, j 
The, contusion of the following lines i3 inaccurate in this 
; : no : "BUI stijl there, will be such a mixture of delight. 



Clearness,) perspicuity, &c> 27 i 

as is proportioned to the degree in which any one of these 
qualifications is most conspicuous and prevailing." The 
order in which the two last words are placed, should have 
been reversed, and made to stand, prevailing and con- 
spicuous. — They are conspicuous, because they prevaik. 

The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict 
conformity to this rule. ' Our sight fills the mind with 
the largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects at 
the greatest distance, and continues the longest in aclioiv- 
without being tired or satiated with its proper enjoyments." 
This passage" follows the order of nature. First, we have 
the variety of objects mentioned, which sight furnishes to 
the mind ; next, we have the action of sight on those ob- 
jects; and lastly, we have the time and continuance of 
its action. No order could be more natural or exact. 

The order- which we now recommend, is, in single words - 
especially, frequently violated* for the sake of better 
sound: but, perhaps- in no instances^ without a deviation 
from the line of strict propriety* 

3. In the disposition of (he relative pronouns, who, which., 
what, whose, and of all these particles which express the- 
connexion of the parts of speech with one another, 

A small error in the position of these worcs may cloud 
the meaning of the whole sentence; and even where the 
meaning is intelligible.we always find somethingawkward 
and disjointed in the structure of the sentence, when these 
relatives are out of their proper place. "This kind of wit," 
say 3 an tfuthor, u was very much in vogue among our 
countrymen about an age or two ago ; who did not practise 
it for any oblique reason-, but purely for the sake of being 
witty." We are at nak*s«bout the meaning here; -but. 
the construction would ey ideally i i A by disposing 

the circumstance, "about an a£*e or two Ego," "in such a 
manner as not to separate the relative who+from its ante- 
cedent our countrymen ; in this way : "About an age or 
two ago. this kind of wit was very much in vogue among 
our countrymen, who did not practise it," &c. 

The following passage is still more censurable. "It 

j is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against, the accidents 

j of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect 

us against, hut the good providence of our Creator/' 

Which always refers grammatically to the substantive igt*. 



272 appendix. (Unity. 

mediately preceding; and that, in the instance just men- 
tioned, is ''treasures." The sentence ought to have 
slood thus: "it is folly to pretend, by heaping up trea- 
sures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, which 
nothing can protect us against," &c. 

With regard to relatives, it may be further observed, 
that obscurity often arises from- the too frequent repetition, 
of them, particularly of the pronouns wlm and tluy, and 
them &nd theirs^ w hen we have occasion to refer to dif- 
ferent persons > as in the following sentence of Tiliotson. 
"Men look with an evil eye upon .the good that is in oth- 
ers, and think that iheir reputation o<L scares them, and 
Uuir commendabie qualities stand in their light; aid 
therefore they do what ihey can to cast a clou*} over iJum, 
that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure 
Hum." 1 This is altoge t her ca re-less writing. W he n w e 
find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we* 
have often no method left, but to throw the whole sen- 
tence into some other form, which may avoid those fre- 
quent references to persons who have before been men- 
tioned, . 

To have the relation of every word and member of a. 
sentence marked in the most proper and distinct maimer, 
not only gives clearness to it, but makes the mind pass- 
smoothly and agreeably along all the parts of it.r-Scctli& 
AjPpendjx to, ike Exercises*.. 

CHAPTER 11. 
OF THE UNITY OF A SENTENCE.: 

The • sfcCDND requisite of a perfect sentence, is, itsUnihf-; 

In every composition, there is aiwavs some connecting- 
principle among the parts. Some one object must reign 
and be predominant. But most of; all, in a single sen- 
tence, is required the strictest unity. For the vti-y nature: 
of a sentence implies that one proposition is expressed. It 
may consist of parts, indeed, but these parts must be so 
closely bound together, as to make the impression upon 
the miod of one object, not of many. To preserve this 
unity of a sentence, the following rules must be observed. 

In the first place. During the course erf the sentence, the 
scene should be changed as little as possible. We should 
»al be hurried by suddea transitions from person to per- 



Unity.) perspicuity, &c. 2T$ 

son, nor from subject to subject. There is commonly, in 
every sentence, some person or thing which is the gov- 
erning word. This should be continued so, if possible, 
from the beginning to the end of it. 

The following sentence varies from this rule : " After 
we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was 
welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the 
greatest kindness" In this sentence, though the objects 
contained in it have a sufficient connexion with each 
other, yet, by this manner of representing them, by shift- 
ing so often both the place and the person, we and they, 
and I and w/io, they appear in so disunited a view r , that 
the sense of connexion is much impaired. The sentence 
is restored to its proper unity, by turning it after the fol- 
lowing manner. ''Having come to an anchor. I was put 
on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, and 
received with the greatest kindness." 

Here follows another instance of departure from the 
rule. "The sultan being dangerously wounded, they 
carried him to his tent ; and, upon hearing of the defeat 
of his troops, they put him into a litter, which transported, 
him to a place of safety, at the distance of about fifteen^ 
leagues." Better thus: "The sultan being dangerously 
wounded, was carried to his tent; and, on hearing of the 
defeat of his troops, was put into a litter, and transported 
to a place of safety about fifteen. leagues distant." 

A second rule under the head of unity, is Never to crowd 
into one sentence, things which have so little connexion that 
they could bear to be divided into two or three sentences. 

The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex 
and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sen- 
tences, than by one that is overloaded and embarrassed. 
Examples abound in authors. "Archbishop Tillotson," 
says an author, "died in this year. He was exceedingly 
beloved by king William and queen Mary, who nomina- 
ted Dr. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, to smcceed him.'' 
Who would expeet the latter part of this sentence to fol- 
low in consequence of the former ? "He was exceedingly 
.beloved by both kins and queen," is the proposition of 
uhe sentence. We took for some proof of this, or at l<Mst 
JBomethiug related to it to follow ; when we are on a sud- 
den carried off to a new proposition. 



&T4- appendix. (Ur?ity> 

The following sentence is still worse. The author, 
speaking of the Greeks under Alexander, says : "Their 
march was through an uncultivated country, whose sa- 
vage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than 
a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavoury, 
by reason of their continual feeding upon sea- fish. 5 ' Here 
the scene is changed upon us again and again. The march 
of the Greeks, the description of the inhabitants through 
whose country they travelled, the account of their sheep, 
and the cause of their sheep being ill-tasted food, form a 
jumble of objects, slightly related to each other, which 
the reader cannot, without much difficulty, comprehend 
under one view. 

These examples have been taken from sentences of no 
great length, yet very crouded. Writers who deal in Jong 
sentences, are very apt to be faulty in this article. Take, 
for an instance, the following from Temple. '-The usual 
acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different 
things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them 
by the several names of busy and idle men; but distin- 
guishes the faculties of the mind, that are conversant 
about them, calling the operations of the first, Wisdom ; 
and of the other, Wit ; which is a Saxon word, used to 
express what the Spaniards and Italians call Inge?rlo, and 
the French Esprit, both from the Latin, though I think 
wit more particularly signifies that of poetry, as may oc- 
cur hi remarks en the Runic language." When the read- 
er arrives- at the end ; of this perplexed sentence, he is 
surprised to find himself at so great distance from the ob- 
ject with which he set out. 

Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great ble- 
mishes in composition. In writers of considerable cor- 
rectness, we find a period sometimes running out so far,, 
and comprehending so many particulars, as to be more 
properly a discourse than a sentence. An author, speak- 
ing of the progress of our language after the time of 
Cromwell, runs on in this manner : "To this succeeded 
that licentiousness which entered with the restoration, 
and, from infecting our religion and morals, fell to cor- 
rupt our language; which last was not like to be much 
improved by those who at that time made up the court 
of, king Charles the Second; either such as had followed. 



Unify.) perspicuity, &c, 215 

him in his banishment, or who had been altogether con- 
versant in the dialect of these times, or young men who 
had been educated in the same country : so that the court, 
which used to be the standard of correctness and proprie- 
ty of speech, was then, and I think has ever since con- 
tinued, the worst school in England for that accomplish- 
ment ; and so will remain, tiil better care be taken in the 
education of our nobility, that they may set out into the 
world with some foundation of literature, in order to qua- 
lify them for patterns of politeness.*' 

The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a 
loose dissertation upon several subjects. How many dif- 
ferent facts, reasonings, and observations, are here pre- 
sented to the mind at once ! and yd so linked together 
by the author, thiit they all make parts of a sentence, 
which admits of no greater division in pointing than a co- 
lon, between any of its members. 

It may be of use here to give a specimen of a Jong 
sentence, broken down into several periods ; by which 
we shall more clearly perceive the disadvantages of long 
sentences, and how easily \ bey may be amended. Here 
follows the sentence in its original form : 'Though in 
yesterday's paper we showed how every thing that h 
great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination 
with pleasure, we must own, that it is impossible for us 
to assign the necessary cause of this pleasure, because 
we know neither (he nature of an idea, nor the substance 
of a human soul : and therefore, for want of such a light, 
all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is, to re- 
flect on those operations of the soul (hat are most agree- 
able; and to range, under their proper heads, what i3 
pleasing or displeasing to the mind, without being able 
to trace out the several necessary and efficient causes, 
from whence the pleasure or displeasure arises/' 

The following amendment, besides breaking down the 
period into several sentences, exhibits some other useful 
alterations : "In yesterday's paper, we showed that every 
thing which is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to a [feet 
the imagination with pleasure, We must own, that it is 
impossible for us to assign the efficient cause of this plea- 
jsnre, because we know not the nature either of an idea, 
Ux of the human soul. All that we cm do, therefore, in 



276 appendix. (Strength. 

speculations of this .kind, is to reflect on the operations of 
the soul which are most agreeable, and to range under 
proper heads what i3 pleasing or displeasing to the mind." 
A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences, is, 
to keep clear of all unnecessary parentheses. 

On some occasions, when the sense is not too long sus- 
pended by them, and when they are introduced in a pro- 
per place, they may add both to the vivacity and to the 
energy of the sentence. But for the most part their effect 
m extremely bad. They are wheels within wheels; sen- 
tences in the midst of sentences; the perplexed method 
of disposing of some thought, which a writer wants judg- j 
ment to introduce in it3 proper place. 

The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper : 
"And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
"(What can exalt the bounty more ?) for thee." 
But in the following sentence, we become sensible of an 
impropriety in the use of it. "If your hearts secretly re- 
proach you for the wrong choice you have made, (as 
there is time for repentance and retreat; and a return to 
wisdom is aiways honourable;) bethink yourselves that the 
evil is not irreparable " It would be much better to ex- 
press in a separate sentence, the thought*, contained in 
this parenthesis, thus : "If your hearts secretly reproach 
you for the wrong choice you have made, bethink your- 
selves that the evil is not irreparable. Still there is time 
for repentance and retreat; and a return to wisdom is 
aiways honourable."—^ the Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER MI. 

OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. 

The third requisite of a perfect, sentence, is, Strength. 

By this is meant such a disposition and management of 
the several words and members, as shall bring out the 
sense to the best advantage, ami give every word and 
every member, its due weight and force. : 

A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in all 
its parts, or have the requisite unity, and yet, by some cir- 
cumstance in the structure, it may fail in that strength ot 
impression, which a better management wouW have pro- 
duced. 



Strength.) perspicuity, &c. 277 

The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, 
is, to prune it of all redundant words and members. 

It is a general maxim, that any words which do not 
add some importance to the meaning of a sentence, always 
injure it. Care should therefore be exercised with respect 
to synonymous words, expletives, circumlocutions, tauto- 
logies, and the expressions of unnecessary circumstances. 
The attention becomes remiss, when words are .multiplied 
without a correspondent multiplication of ideas. HJon- 
tent with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour of 
it," is better language than to say, ; *£eing content with 
deserving it," &c. 

u Iia the Attic commonwealth," says an author, "it wns 
the privilege and birthright of every citizen and pcet. to 
rail aloud and in public." Better simply thus : Ci In the 
Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen 
to rail in public." 

Another expresses himself thus : '*They returned hack 
again to the same cityfiom whence they came forth;" 
instead of, u They returned to the city whence they 
came." The five words, back, again, same, from, and 
forth, are mere expletives, that have neither use nor beau- 
ty, and are therefore to be regarded as encumbrances. 

The word but is often improperly used with that : as, 
"There can be no doubt but that he seriously means what 
he says." It is not only useless, but cumbersome : "There 
•can be no doubt that he seriously means what he says." 
By transposing the parts of the sentence, we shall imme- 
diately {>erceive the propriety of omitting this word: "That 
he seriously means what he says, there can be no doubt." 

"I am honestly, seritfusly, and unalterably of opinion, 
that nothing can possibly be more incurably and empha- 
tically destructive, or more decisively fatal, to a king- 
dom than the introduction of thoughtless dissipation, and 
the pomp of lazy iuxury." Would not the full import of 
this noisy & « be better expressed thus: "I am of 

opinion, th;it nothing is more ruinous to a kingdom, than 
luxury and dissipation." 

Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing 

their ideas, A considerable one, for so very simple a 

thius; as a man's wounding himself, says, 'To mangle, ot 

troumJi his outward form and constitution, his natural 

24 



278 appendix. (Strength- 

limbs or body," But, on some occasions, circumlocution 
has a peculiar force ; as in the following sentence: ''Shall 
not the Judge of all the earth do right I" 

in the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tauto- 
logy appear. 

u So it is, that I must be forced to get home, partly by 
stealth, and partly by force." 

"Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the uni- 
versal love and esteem of all men." 

The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary 
circumstances. "On receiving this information, he arose, 
went out, saddled his horse, mounted him, and rode to 
town.' 9 AH is implied in saying, "On receiving this in- 
formation, he rode to town." 

This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strong- 
ly characteristic of the simple style ot remote ages, ihaf, 
in hooks of the highest antiquity. particularly the Bible, 
it is not at ail ungraceful. Of this kind are (he following 
scriptural phrases. "He (lifted up his voice, and wept." 
4i He opened his/ mouth, and said." 5 it is true, that in 
strictness, they are not necessary to the narration, hut 
they are of some importance to the comaoeiiion, as hear- 
ing the venerable signature of ancient simplicity. 1 1 may, 
on this occasion, fie fdr-Tier observed, that ihe language 
of the present translation Of the Bibie. ought not to be 
viewed in an exception- aide light, though some parts of it 
may appear to he obsolete, ¥v\)m Universal admission, 
this ' iangnage has become so fi* ?: n ;i>i r and intelligible, that 
in all traaserra- and ahusio^s, except where the sense 
is evidenUy homed, it ought to \:e carefully preserved. 
And it may aisb be justly renrokeo, thai on religious 
suhjeels, a frequent peciicteae^ ^ s*& ;; : .turo-language is 
attends star force and propriety. 

ThoPv: 1 . it promotes the strength of a sentence, to con- 
tract a roundabout rrr-thou of exoressiom and to lop off 
exJcrescMces yej ~se should avoid die extreme ef jouning 
too c lost- i?- : some c leiiv^s ^houW be left to shelter and 
surrpuud the fruit, E< en sytfaiiymam ei{*e&m&&* may, 
c:i some be One is, when 

auoieratr:, - -^ U -; void employing, 

meds to be esplaim d by one that is deafer. The other 
is, when the language ot the emotions is exhibited. Eaao 



Strength.) perspicuity, &c. 270 

tion naturally dwells on its objeet : find when the reader 
also feels interested, repetition unci synonymy have fre- 
.quentiy an agreeable effect. 

The following passage, taken from Addison, who de- 
lighted in a full arid flowing style, may, by some persons, 
be deemed not very exceptionable. c *But there is no- 
thing that makes its way more directly -to the soul than 
beauty, which immediate fuses a secret satisfaction 

and complacency through the imagination, and gives a 
finishing to any thing th.it is great or uncommon. The 
very first discovery of It strikes the mind with inward 
jo} r , and spreads a cheerfulness and delight through all 
its faculties.* 3 Some degree of verbosity may he disco- 
vered in these sentences, as phrases are repeated winch 
Sfeni little more than the echo of one another ; snch as — 
diffusing satisfaction and complacency thrvugh ike imagi- 
nation — .sinking the mind ivilh virvard jci; — spreading 
cheerfulness and d 'light through all Us \e&. But, 

perhaps, some retiuiidaucy is more allowable on such 
lively sui'jacis, than it would he on other occasions. 

!er removing superfluities^ the second iu!e lor pro- 
moting the strength of a sentence, is, to att( dpaiiici 
ly > ioine use cf copulatives, relatives, and a I ncles 

employed for transition and connexion. 

These lit tie words id, or, ivhieh, whose* wry re, 

then, therefore. -jUcoUy tn apor- 

tant words of any,; ;- upon 

whichaUsente .. -.. &nd; ( f eoyfs^ i ibt*ir 

strength in Uot<] ^articles, ' el*es 

in using them are, indeed, so many, that no particular 
system of rui^s respecting \\\,:\ c in '■■ Some ob- 

servations, leading to illustrate the rule; may, ho ft eve*, 
be mentioned. 

What is called splitting particles or separating a 
preposition Tom the noun which itgCN erns is to be avoid- 
ed. As if i shou'ei s s no 
assistance from yet it may often , the 
advantages of fortune." 

thought, being obliged to rest a little on the preposiiion 
by itself, which, at the same time, carries no si-mlican- 
cy, till it is joined to its nve. 

Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and 



2Ba appendix-, (Strength.. 

relative partic!es v by the frequent use of such phraseology 
as this : ''There is nothing which disgusts us 'sooner than 
the empty pomp of language." in introducing a subject, 
or laying down a proposition, to which we demand parti- 
cular attention, this sort of style is very proper ; but, on 
common occasions, it is better to express ourselves more 
simply and briefly : "Nothing disgusts us sooner than the 
empty pomp of language." 

Other writers make a- practice of omitting thej-elative^ 
where they think the- meaning can be understood without 
it : as, u The man i love;" "The dominions we posses- 
sed. %ru\ the conquests we made." But though this ellip- 
tical style is intelligible, and is allowable in conversation 
and epistolary writing, yet in all writings of a serious 
and dignified kind, it ought to be avoided. There, the 
relative should always be inserted in its proper place, and 
the construction filled up. "The man whom I love." 
-"'The dominions which we possessed, and the conquests 
which we made." 

With regard to the copulative particle and y which oc- 
curs so frequently in all kinds of composition, several 
observations are to be rnade. First, it is evident, that 
the unnecessary repetition of it enfeebles style. The 
following sentence from Sir William Temple* will serve 
for an instance. He is speaking of the refinement of the 
French language : "The academy, set up by Cardinal 
Kichelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, 
and divert ihem from raking into his politics and ministry, 
brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have, for 
this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of 
their style an J language ; and, indeed, with such success,, 
that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally through 
their verse and thei» prose " Here are no fewer than 
eight an ds in one sentence* Some writers often make 
their sentences drag in this manner, by a careless multi- 
plication of copulatives. 

But, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, that 
though the natural use of the conjunction and, is to join 
objects together, yet, in fact, by dropping the conjunc- 
tion we often make a closer connexion, a quicker suc- 
cession of objects, than when it is inserted between them. 
H came,. I saw, I conquered," expresses with more, ibrca 



Strength.) itzspjcuity, &c, 281 

the rapidity and quick succession of conquest, than if 
connecting particles had been used. 

On (he other hand, when \\e seek to prevent a quick 
transition from one object to another, when we are mdv- 
ins some enumeration, in which we wish that the objects 
should appear as distinct from each otto r as possible, and 
i he mind should rest, for a moment, on each object 
by itself, copulatives may be multiplied with peculiar ad- 
vantage. As w hen an author says, * Such a man might 
fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, 
would foil witli him.' 7 Observe, in the following enume- 
ration made by the Apostle faui, what additional weight 
and distinctness are given to each particular,, by the re- 
petition of a conjunction : "I am persuaded that neither 
death, nor life nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, 
nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us- 
from the love of God." 

The words designed to mark the transition from one 
sentence to another, and the connexion between sonten- 
c s, are sometimes verj incorrect, and perform their of- 
fice io an imperfect and obscure manner. The following 
is an example of this kind of inaccuracy. "By great- 
ness. 1 do not mean the bulk of any single object only, 
but the largeness of a whole view. Si;eh are the pro- 
spects of an open champaign country, a vast uncultivated 
clesart, 1 ' &c» T he vfdntsufh signifies of that nature or 
quality, which necessarily presupposes some adjective or 
word descriptive of a quality going before, to which it 
refers. But. in the foregoing sentence, there is no such 
adjective. The author bed spoken of greatness in the 
abstractedly; and, therefore, such has no distinct ante- 
• U ut to which we can refer it. The sentence would 
have been introduced with more propriety, by saying. To 
this class belong, or under this licad fire ranged, the pros- 
pects. &c 

As connective particles are the hinges, facks, and pins, 
by which the words in the sam^ clause, the clauses in the* 
same member, the manners in the same sentences and 
even the sentmeer iame (Hseonrse, are united kv 

geth'^r. ami their relations suggested, so they should not 
to either too frequently repeated, awkwardly exposed to^ 
24* 



282 appendix (Strength. 

view, or made up of polysyllables, when shorter words 
would as well c mvey the meaning. Notwithstanding that> 
insomuch that, forasmuch as, furthermore* &c, are tedious 
words, which tend to overload and perplex a sentence.. 

We shall conclude this head with two remarks on the 
subject of inserting or omitting the conjunctions. The first- 
is, that the illative conjunctions, the causal, and the dis- 
junctive, when they suit the sense, can more rarely be 
dispensed with than the copulative. The second is, that 
the omission of copulatives always succeeds best, when 
the connexion of the thoughts is either very close, or very 
distant It i3 mostly in the intermediate cases that the 
conjunction is deemed necessary. When the connexion 
ia thought is very distant, the copulative appears absurd ; 
and when very close, superfluous. 

The third m\e for promoting the strength of a sentence, 
is, to dispose rfthe capital word, or words, so that they may 
make the greatest impression^ 

That there are, in every sentence, such capital words 
on which the meaning principally rests, every one must 
see ; and that these w ord3 should possess a conspicuous 
and distinguished place, is equally plain. For the most 
part,- with us, the important words are placed in the be- 
ginning of the sentence. So in the following passages : 
"Silver and gold have I none ; but such as 1 have, give I 
unto thee," <&c. "Your fathers, where are they ? and the 
prophets, do they live for ever ?"" 

Sometimes, however, when we intend to give weight 
to a sentence, it is of advantage to suspend the meaning 
for a little, and then bring it out full at the close. 'Thus,' 
says an author; "on whatever side we contemplate this. 
ancient writer, what principally strikes us, is his wonder- 
ful invention. 5 * 

To accomplish thisjend, the placing of capital words in 
a conspicuous part of the sentence, the natural order of our 
language must sometimes be inverted. According to this, 
natural order, the nominative has the first place, the verb 
the second, and the objective, if it be an active verb that 
is employed, has the third. Circumstances follow the nom- 
inative, the verb, or the objective, as they happen to be- 
long to any of them. "Diana of the Ephesians is great," 
& the natural order of the sentence. But its strength Ms 



Strength.) perspicuity, &c. 28$ 

increased by inversion, thus : c Great is Diana of the Ephe- 
siars n a l profess in the sincerity of my heart" &c. is 
the natural order of a circumstance. Inverted thus : 'In* 
the sincerity of my heart, I profess," &e. 

Some authors greatly invert the natural order of sen- 
tences; others write mostiy in the natural style. Each 
method has its advantages. The inverted possesses 
strengths dignity, and variety : the other, more nature,- 
ease, and simplicity. We shall give an instance of each 
method, taken from writers of consideiabie eminence. 
The first i& of the inverted order. The author is speaking 
of the misery of vice, "This, as to the complete immoral 
state, is, what of their own accord* men readily remark, 
Where there is this absolute degeneracy, this total apostacy 
from all candour, truth, or equity, there are few who do not 
see and acknowledge the misery which is consequent. 
Seldom is the case misconstrued when at worst. The 
misfortune is, that we look not on this depravity, nor con- 
sider how it stands in less degrees. As if, to be absolute- 
ly immoral, were, indeed, the greatest misery ; but to be 
so in, a little degree, should be no misery or harm at all. 
Which, to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that it is 
the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner maim- 
ed or distorted ; but that to lose the use only of one limb, 
or to be impaired in some single organ or member, is no 
ill worthy the least notice." Here is no violence done 
to the language, though there are many inversions. 

The following is an example of natural construction : 
u Our sight is the most perfect, and the mod delightful of 
all our senses. It fills-the mind with the largest variety of 
ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest distance, 
and continues the Longest in action, ..without being tired, . 
or satiated with, its proper enjoyments, The sense of feel- 
ing can, indeed; give us a notion of extension, shape, and 
all other ideas that enter at the eye except colours ; but, 
at the same time, it is very mnch straitened and confined 
in ils operations," &c. 

But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever 
part of the sentence we dispose of ihe capital words, it is 
always a point of consequence^ that these capital words 
should stand clear and disentangled from any other words 
that would clo&tbern. Thus, wheu there are any circuit- 



.2fM appendix. (Strength. 

stances of time. place, or other limitations which the prin- 
cipal object of our sentence requires to have connected 
wrh it r we must take care to dispose of them, so as not to 
cloud that principal object,, nor to bury it under a foad of 
circumstances This will be made clearer by an exam- 
ple. u \i\ whilst they profess only to please, they secret- 
ly advise, and give instruction, they may now perhaps as 
well as formerly, be esteemed, with justice, the best and 
most honourable among authors.' 5 This is a well con- 
structed sentence. It contain? a great many circumstances 
ami adverbs necessary to quaHry the meaning only, secret- 
ly< as wdh perhaps, ncn^nnth j^siwe, formerly ; yet these 
are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor ' 
weaken the sentence; while that which is the capital ob- 
ject in it. viz. ''being justly esteemed the best and most 
honourable among authors, ' conies cut in the conclusion 
clear and detached and possesses its proper place. See, 
now what would have been the effect of a different ar- 
rangement: "If. whilst they profess to please only, they 
advise and give instruction secretly, they may be esteemed 
the best and must honourable among authors, with justice,, 
perhaps, now as well as formerly." 7 Here we have pre- 
cisely the same words, and the same sense ; but by means- 
of the circumstances being so intermingled as to clog- the 
capital words, the whole becomes feeble and perplexed. 

The fourth rule for promoting the strength of senten- 
ces, is. thai a wraleer assertion er proposition should never 
come after a strofigcrohe ; dndthxtt* when one sentence con- 
sists erf two maulers, the longer should, generally, be the con~ 
eluding one. 

Thus, to say, "When our passions have forsaken us y 
we Salter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken; 
them," is both more easy arid more clear, than to begin 
wbh the longer part of the proposition : Ci We flatter our- 
selves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions*, 
when they have forsaken us." 

In general, 5* is agreeable to find a sentence rising up- 
on us, and growing in its importance, to the very last 
word, when this construction can he managed without af- 
fectation. "If we rise yet higher.'' says Addison, "and 
consider the fixed stars as so many oceans of flame, that 
are each of them attended with & different set of planets;: 



Strength.) perspicuity, Sic. 285 

and still discover new firmaments and new lights, that are 
sunk further in those unfathomable depths of ether; we 
are tost in such a labyrinth of suns and worlds, and con- 
founded with the magnificence and immensity of nature.'* 
The fifth rule for the strength of sentences is, to avoid 
concluding than with an adverb, a preposition, or any incon- 
siderable word. 

Agreeably to this rule, we should not conclude with 
any of the particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, 
it is a greater deal better to say, " Avarice is a crime of 
which wise men are often guilty," than to say, "Avarice 
is a crime which wise men are often guilty of." Thi3 is 
a phraseology which all correct writers shun; and with 
reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a little, oa 
the import of the word which closes the sentence, it must 
be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word, which does, 
fiof, by itself, produce any idea. 

For the same reason, verbs which are used in a com- 
pound sense, with some of these prepositions, are, though- 
cot so bad, yet still not proper conclusions of a period;, 
such as, bring about, lay hold of, come over to,, clear up, 
and many other of this kind ; instead of which, if we can 
employ a simple verb, it always terminates the sentence 
with more strength. Even the pronmm it, should, if pos- 
sible, be avoided in the conclusion: especially when it 
is joined with some of the prepositions; as. with it, in it t 
to it. We shall be sensible of this in the following sen- 
tence. "There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing 
and triumphant consideration in religion, than this of the 
j perpetual progress which the soul makes towards the per- 
fection of its nature, without ever arriving at a period 
in it. How much more agreeable the sentence, if it 
had been so constructed as to close with the word period! 
Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which ex- 
presses a circumstance only, always appears badly in the 
rear of a sentence. We may judge of this by the fol- 
lowing passage : "Let me therefore conclude bv repeat- 
ing, that division has caused all the mischief we" lament ; 
that union alone can retrieve it: and that a great advance 
towards this union, was the coalilion of parties, so hap- 
pily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late so ua- 
iccountably neglected; to say no worse. 55 This last phrase,. 



£86 appendix. (Strength. 

*<to say no worse," occasions a felling off at the end. 
The proper disposition of such circumstances in a sen- 
tence, requires attention in order to adjust them so as 
shfti consist, equally with the perspicuity and The strength 
of the period.— Though unnecessary parts, they are. how- 
ever, like, irregular stones in a building, which try the 
skill of an artist, where to place them with the least 
offence. But it .must be remembered, chat the close is 
always an unsuitable place for them. Notwithstanding 
what has bean said against concluding a period with an 
adverb, &e. this must not be understood to refer to such 
words, when the stress and signifre&riey of the sentence 
rest chiefly upon them, In this case they are not .to he 
considered as circumstances, but as the principal objects ; 
as In the following sfuU.nce. ''in their prosperity, my 
friends shall never hear of me. in their adversity, -always n 
Here, hieiter^ and ^always" being emphaticai words, 
were to be so placed as to -make a s| rejig impression. 

The sixth rule relaling so the strength of a sentence, 
is, trial, in the tnernksr& of a sentence, when intp things are 
compared of cooti>.s>ed with one antiher ; rvlurc either a 
resemblance or an oppasiiiem is iri&ntk d to be expressed ; | 
some resemblance, in the l^ngimge an$ conHrn€tion\ should 
be preserved. For ?viun the things themselves correspond 
to tacit ether, we naturally expect to find a similar corres- 
pondence in the words. 

Thus when it is said, u The wise man is happy whenj 
die gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he recom- 
mends himself to the apptanse of those about him ;" ihe 
opposition womd have heen more regular, if it had been 
expressed thus : " The wis* m^ei is happy when he gains 
his own approbation ; the fool, when fee gains that of 
others." 

U A friend exaggerates a man's \irtues : an enemy in- 
j^araes his crimes^ Better thus : ';A frieml exaggerates 
a man's virtues; an enemy, his crimes.*' 

The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Ho- 
xner ? fully exemplifies the rule just given: "Homer was 
the gfeater genius ; Virgil, the hotter artist : in the one, 
we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. 'Homer! 
hurries us with a commanding impetuosity ; Virgil k uls 
us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a 



Strength.) perspicuity, &c. 227 

generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful mag- 
nificence. Homer, like the Nile, poms out his "riches 
with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banfea, 
with a constant stream.' 1 — Periods thus constructed,*", hen 
introduced with propriety, and not returning too often, 
[ have a sena&Je beauty. npvt»\ beVare of carrying 

i our attention io this i*en\ tr. It pug&f only 'to be 

occasionally studied, wh parisoa -or opposition of ' 

- obj<-« • > My leadi to ijf> .a construction as 

j ttiis bjp aimed n in sentences, K'leads^to a dis* 

:y ; produC) b a r y n turning 

tire h : j lairily dls- 

\ covers 
! Tin . the strength and etfeet 

€ itenees is . harmony and 

easy rs\ 

Sound is <\ opj interior to sew?? ; y i so< ; us 

must h , the 

veh;cie or , : * '. yy 

, con side ra- { de connexion befwten con* 

ve} ed ami Lhenature el' . i o.— 

sing ideas, and forci i ■ y be 

transmitted to the mi o" e e- 

' able sounds. The mini! and the 

■impression ef the sentiment una*; eoase be weak- 

ened. Ti - :tio:)s which. we ha . ke on this 

subject, respect the choice of words ; fhe ngement-5 

?thc order and disposition of the mfeinbers ; and the ca- 
dence or close of sentences. 

We begin with fhe choice of words. It* is evident, 
the. t words are most agreeable to the ear, when ihey are 
imposed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there 
is a proper intermixture of vowels and coBSonanis : with- 
out too many harsh consonants rubbing ? [gainst each other; . 
jor too many open vowels in succession, to e&nse a hiatus, 
or disagreeable aperiJire of the mouth. 

It may always he assumed as n principle, that whatever I 

sounds are dUikult in pvomn,' are, in the same 

it'sb and painfuJ to the ear. Vowels gita 

bi sh; consonants, strength to the sound <rf words. 

'jjhe melody of (an. requires a just proportion ^of 

each; and the construction will be hurt, will be rendered 



288 appendix. (Strength* 

either grating or effeminate, by an excess of either. 
Long words are commonly more agreeable to the ear 
4han monosyllables. They please it by the composition 
or succession of sounds which they present to it ; and ac- 
cordingly, the most harmonious languages abound most in 
them. Among words of any length, those are the most 
melodious, which do not run wholly either upon long or 
short syllables, but are composed of an . intermixture of 
them : such as, repent, profess, powerful, velocity, celerity^ 
independent, impetuosity. 

If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must 
avoid the use of such words as the following; L Such as 
;are composed of words already compounded, the several 
parts of which are not easily, and therefore not closely 
united : as. "Unsuccessfuiness, wrongheadedness, tender- 
heartedness P 2. Such as have the syllables which im- 
mediatelv follow the accented syllable* crowded with con- 
sonants that do not easily coalesce: as, 'Questionless^ 
chroniclers, coiiventiclers :" 3. Such as have too many syl- 
lables following the accented syllables : as. "Primarily, 
cursorily, 'summarily,. per rmptoriness :" 4. Such as have 
& short or unaccented syllable repeated, or followed by 
another short or unaccented syllable very much res m- 
bling:.as, "Holily, sillily I orvffiy, farriery^ A little 
harshness, by the collision of consonants, which never- 
theless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and 
which do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable idea 
either of precipitation or of stammering, is by no means a 
sufficient reason for suppressing a useful term. The words 
hedi^d^Jlrd^d, tvfdg^d, drud;/' d, grudg 7/, arlji'dgd. which 
some have thought very -offensive, are not exposed to 
the object inns which lie against the words above men- 
tioned. We Should net do well to introduce such hard 
and strong rounds too frequently ; but when t hoy are used 
■S| >aringi$ and properly, they have even a good effect. 
They contribute to that variety in sound which is advan- 
tageous to language. 

The next head, respecting the harmony which results 
from a proper arrangement of words, is a point of greater 
nicety. For, let the words themselves be ever so well 
chosen, and we^l -sounding, yet, if they be ill disposed, the 
jneiody of the sentence is utterly lost, or greatly impaired* 



"Strength.) f^rsiucuity, &c. 289 

'That this is the case the learners will perceive by the 
following examples. ''Pleasures simple and moderate 
always are the J3est ?' it would be better to say. "Sim- 
ple and moderate pleasures are always the best.' 5 "Of- 
fice or rank may be the recompense of intrigue, versa- 
tility, or flattery ;' ? better thus, "Rank or office may be 

I the recompense of flattery, versatility, or intrigue." "A 
great recommendation of the guidance offered by integri- 
ty to us, is, that it is by all men easily understood :" bet- 
ter in this form ; "it is a great recommendation of the 
guidance offered to us by integrity, that it is easily un- 
derstood-by all men." In the following examples, the 
.words are neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce 

' the rtiost agreeable effect. "If we make the best of our 
life, it is but as a pilgrimage, with dangers surrounding 
it :" better thus, "Our life, at the best, is a pilgrirmge, 
and dangers surround it." *'We see that we are encum- 
bered with difficulties, which we cannot prevent :" bet- 
ter, "We perceive ourselves involved in difficulties that 
cannot be avoided. 5 ' "It is plain to any ope who views 
the subject, even slightly, that there is nothinghere that 
is without allay and pare :" improved by tins -form"; "It is 
evident to ihe slightest inspection, that nothing here is 
u n a Ray e d a n d pu re . ' ' 

We may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably 
harmonious, the following from Milton's Treatise on Edu- 
cation: "We sh ill conduct you to a hill-side, laborious 
indeed, at i\ie first ascent; but else so smooth, so green, 
so full of goodly prosneets, and melodious sounds on every 
side, that the harp of Orpheus was not more charming.'* 
Every thing in thi3 sentence conspires to promote the 
harmony. The words are well chosen ; full of liquids, 
and soft sounds; laborious, smooth, green, goodly, melodi- 
ous, charming ; and these words so artfully arranged, that 
were we to alter the situation of any one of them, we 
ahouh! presenHy.be sensible of the melody's s u Bering. 

To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, 
the following general directions will be found of some use. 
1st, Whenlhc preceding word ends with a vowel, let 

Ube subsequent one begin with a consonant ; and vice 
versa. A true friend, a cruel enemy, are smoother and 
easier to the voice, than a true tinioiiy a cruel destroyer. 
25 



29(5 appendix. (Strength. 

But when it is more perspicuous or convenient, for vowels 
or consonants to end one word and begin the next, it is 
proper that the vowels be a long and short one; and that 
the consonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of 
different sorts : thus, a lovely offspring ; a purer design ; 
a calm retreat j are more fluent than, a happy union, a 
hrief petition, a cheap triumph, a putrid distemper, a calm 
matron, a clean nurse. From these examples,. the student 
will perceive the importance of accurately understanding 
the nature of vowels and consonants, liquids and mutes ; 
with the connexion and influence which subsist amongst 
them. 2d, In general, a considerable number of longer 
short words near one another should be avoided. "Disap- 
pointment in our expectations is wretchedness;'" better 
thus ; ''Disappointed hope is misery." "No course of joy 
^an _ please us long :» better, "No course of enjoyment can 
delight us long." A succession of words having the same 
quantity in the accented syllables,, whether it be Ion o* or 
«hort, should also be avoided, "James was needy, feeble, 
and fearful :;' improved thus, "James was timid, feeble, 
and destitute," "They could not he happy ; for he was 
silly, pettish, and sullen :" better thus ; "They could not 
fee happy ; for lie was simple, peevish, and gloomy.' 5 < 3d, 
Words which begin alike, or end alike, must not come 
together; and the last syllable of the preceding word, 
should not be the same as the first syllable of the subse- 
quent one. It is not so pleasing and harmonious to say^ 
-"This is a convenient contrivance;" "He is an indulgent 
parent ;' ; "She behaves with uniform formality f as, 
"This is a useful contrivance ;" "He is a kind parent ;" 
"She behaves with unvaried formality .' ' 

We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, 
with regard to harmony. They should not be too long, 
nor disproportionate to each other. When they have a 
regular ami proportional division, they are much easier 
to the voice, are more clearly understood, and better re- 
membered, than when this rule is not attended to : for 
whatever tires the voice, and offends the ear, is apt to 
mar the strength of the expression, and to degrade the 
sense of the author. And this is a sufficient ground for 
paying attention te the order and proportion of senten- 
ces, and the different parts of which they consist. The- 



Strength.) perspicuity, &c: 2ft 

following passage exhibits sentences in which the differ- 
ent members are proportionally arranged. 

Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says ; But his 
pride is greater than his ignorance, and what .he wants in 
'knowledge he supplies by sufficiency. W hen he has 
looked about him as far as he can, he concludes there 13 
no more to be seen ; when he is at the end of bis hne r 
he is at the bottom of the ocean ; when he has shot bis 
bttf, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, shoot better, 
or beyond it. His own reason he holds to be (he certain 
measure of truth; and hi* own knowledge, of what is 
possible in nature." Here every thing is at once easy 
to the breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the 
understanding. See another example of the same kind, 
in the J 7th and 18th verses of. the 3d chapter of the pro- 
phet Habakkuk. We may remark here, that our present 
version of the Holy Scriptures, especially of the Psalm*, 
abounds with instances of an harmonious arrangement ot 
the words and members of sentences, 

In the following quotation from TMotson, we shall be- 
come sensible of an effect very different from that of the 
preceding sentences. "This discourse, concerning the 
easiness of the Divine commands, does all along supp ose 
and acknowledge the difficulties of the first entrance upon 
a religious course; except only in those persons who have 
h id the happiness to be trained up to religion, by the ea- 
sy and insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous educa- 
tion." Here there is some degree of harshness and un- 
pleasantness, owing principally to this, that there is pro- 
perly no more than one pause or rest in the sentence, 
falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided : 
each of which is so long as to occasion a considerable 
stretch of the breath in pronouncing it. 

With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, 
care should be taken, that it ■ be not abrupt, or unplea- 
sant. The following instances may be sufficient to show 
the propriety of some attention to this part of the rule. 
"Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good tem- 
per and prudence, are prosperous in general." 5 It would 
be better thus: "Virtue, diligence, and. industry, joined 
with good temper and prudence, have ever been found 
the surest road to prosperity." An author speaking of 




^ 2 APPENDIX. mt r) 

the Trinity, expresses himself thns : «U is a mystery 
which we hrmly believe the truth of, and humbly adorJ 
the depth tf« Ho W mucn better would it have been 
Ztth* l^T^T 1 Ulti&a ^Btery, the truth of 
ku^^ Y beheVe ' aRd lhe ^ h ° f -inch we 
In order to give a sentence this proper close, the Ions?. 
est member ot- it, and the fullest words, should be ri- 
ser veu to (he conclusion. But in this distribution of the 
memoers and in the cadence of the period, as well a* 
in the sentences themselves, variety must be observed ; 
for ihe mind soon tires with a frequent repetition of the 
same tone. 

Though attention to the words and members, and the 
close ol sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must also 
oe kept within proper bounds. Sense has its own har- 
mony ; and in no instance should perspicuity precision, 
or strength of sentiment, be sacrificed to sound. AH un- 
meaning words, introduced merely to round the period, or 
M up the melody, are great blemishes in writing. They 
are childish and trivial ornaments, by which a sentence 
always loses snore in point of weight, than it can gain by 
such additions to its sound. See the Octavo Grammar, on 
this chapter.— See also the Appendix to the Exercises, 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence, i3 a judi- 
cious use of the Figures of Speech. 

As figurative language is to be met with in almost every 
sentence ; and, when properly employed, confers beauty 
and strength on composition; some knowledge of it ap- 
pears to be indispensable to the scholars, who are learn- 
ing to form their sentences with perspicuity, accuracy, and 
force. We shall, therefore, enumerate the principal: 
%ures,and give them some explanation. 

In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure 
From simplicity of expression ; the idsa which we mean to, 
convey is expressed ina particular manner* and -with some 
circumstance added,, which, is designed to render the im- 
pression more.strongandviviu; When I say, for instance, 
'-That a good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversk 



Figures.) perspicuity, &c. 293 

tv ;" I just express my thoughts in the simplest manner 
possible : but when I say, "To the upright there criseth 
light in darkness ;" the same sentiment is expressed in a 
figurative styfe ; a new clrcumst u>ee is introduced; 'light' 
is put in the place of '^comfort," and "darkness" is used 
to suggest the idea of adversity. In the same manner, to 
say, 4, H is impossible, by any search we can make, to ex- 
plore the Divine Nature fully," 'is to make a simple pra- 
position : but when we say, "Canst thou, by searching, 
fthd out the Lord ? Canst thou find out the Almighty to 
perfection ? It is high as heaven, what can3t thou do ? 
deeper than .hell, what canst thou know?" this introduces 
a ffgufe into style; the proposition being not only expres- 
sed, but with It admiration and astonishment 

But, though figures imply a deviation from what may be 
reckoned the most simple form of speech, we are not 
thence to conclude, that they imply any thing uncommon, 
or unnatural. On many occasions, they are both the most 
Datura), and the most common method of uttering our sen- 
timenis. It would be very difficult to compose- any dis- 
course without using them often ; nay, there are lew sen- 
tences of considerable length, in which there does not oc- 
cur some expression that may be termed a figure. This 
being the case, we may see the necessity of some atten- 
tion, In order to understand their nature and use. 

At the first rise of language, men would begin with 
giving names to the different objects which ihey discern- 
ed, or thought of. The stock of words would, then, he* 
very small. As men's ideas multiplied, and their ac- 
quaintance with objects increased, their store cf names 
and words would also increase. But to the vast variety 
of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No lan- 
guage is so copious, as to have a separate word for every 
separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge this la- 
bour of multiplying words without end; and, in order to 
lay less burden on their memories, made one word, which 
they had already appropriated to a cepjain idea er object, 
stand also for some other idea or object, between which 
and the primary one, they Wound, or fancied, some relation., 
The names of sensible objects, were the words most early 
introduced; and were, by degrees, extended to those 
acental objects, of which men had-more obscure coucetir 



23-* ■* AMEimir. (-Piguregri. 

tions, and to which they found it more dinicult to assign- 
distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of 
some sensible idea, where their imagination; found some 
affinity. Thus, we speak of & .piercing, judgment, and a 
clear head ; a soft or a hard heart ;.; a rough or a smooth 
behaviour. We say, injlamedhy -anger, Twrmedby love,- 
swelled with pride, melted into grief ; and these are almost 
£he only significant words which we have for such ideas* 
The principal advantages of figures of speech, are turn 
two following* 

First, They enrich language* and render it more copi- 
ous, By their means, words and phrases are multiplied, 
for expressing all sorts of ideas ; for describing. eveji the 
minutest differences ; the nicest shades and colours of? 
thought ; which no language could possibly do by proper, 
words alone, without assistance from. Tropes. 

Secondly, They frequently give sis a much clearer and? 
more striking view of the principal object^ thaa we could 
have, if it were expressed msimple terms, and divested 
of its accessory idea* By av/ ell chosen figure, even con- 
viction is assisted, and the impression of a truth upon the 
mind, made mora livefj* and forcible than it would other- 
wise be. We p^oeive this in the following illustration 
of Young. 4v Where we dip too deep in pleasure* weal- 
ways stir a sediment that renders it impure and noxious : 3 * 
and in this instance : "A heart boiling; with violent pas- 
sions, will-always send up infatuating fumes to the head. 1 * ' 
A a image that presents sa much eongruity between a 
moral and a sensible idea, serves* like an argument from 
analogy 3 to enforce what the :autho£ asserts ^ and toinduce 
belief. 

Having considered i& g^iiera! hatorg of figures r we pro- 
ceed next to particularise such ofttheraas am of the most 
importance ; viz. Metaphor* Allegory, Comparison, Meto- 
nymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Apostrophe, Antithe- 
sis, interrogation* Exclamation, Amplification .or. Climax^ 
&c. 

m-A Metaphor. A&-& figure founded entirely on the resem- 
blance which one object bears to anoiher. Hence, it is 
.much allied t® slmSe m comparison^ and is indeed no 
<&hef than a comparison, expressed in an abridged fornix 
WhsoJLsay.of some great minister, « 4 ihai hs.uplioids.tho 



TTgures.) perspicuity, dc. 2$5 

state, like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole 
edifice, 51 i fairly make a comparison : "but when 1 say of 
such a minister, '-That he is the pillar of the state," it 
row becomes a metaphor; In the latter case, the com- 
parison between the minister and a pillar is made in the 
mindf. but it is expressed without any of the wot ds that 
denote comparison; 

The following are examples of metaphor taken from 
Scripture : 4 1 will be unto her a wait of fire roundabout^ 
and will be the glory hi the midst of her/ r "Thou art 
my rock and my fortress/ 7 "Thy word is a lamp to my 
f feet, and a tight to my path.'* 

Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors* 

1. Metaphors^ as well as other' figures, should, on no oc- 
casion r bc stuck on profusely ; and should always he such- 
as accord with tlie strain cfov.r sentiment. The latter part 
of the following passage, from a late historian, is r in this 
respect, very exceptionable. He is giving an account of 
the famous act of parliament against irregular marriages 
in Eugland. "The bill/^saya- he, "underwent a g* eat 
number of alterations raid amen -J men* 3* which were not 
effected without violent eentesf At length, however, \i . 
fras floated, through both houses on the tide of a great 
majority, arid Peered into the safe harbour of royal appro- 
bation.' 5 

2. Care should he taken that the resemblance which is 
lite foundation of the metaphor \ be clear and perspicuous ^ 
nut farfetched, nor difficult to discover. The transgressioa 
of this rule makes what are called harsh ot forced meta- 
phors ;. .which are displeasing,, because they nuzzle the 
reader, ant! instead of, ii lustra ting, the thought, reader iti 
jrer pie xed and in fries :q ; 

0; In the third place* we should be careful, in the con- 
duct of metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plains 
language together. An auihor, addressing himself Lo U 
King says: 

To thee the-y/orld its present homage pa ys 5 
The hat vtst early, hut mature the praise. 

It hV plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to 
choice of an improper phrase, he would lave saidy * 

- h arm/ i arlyj b ut mature the croy \ 



296 appendix. (Figure. 

ami so would have continued the figure which be had be- 
gun. Whereas by dropping it unfinished, and by employ- 
log the literal word '""praise, 7T when we were expecting 
something .that related to the harvest, the figure is broken, 
-and the two- members- of the sentence have no suitable 
correspondence to each other. 

4. We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors 
meet on one object This is what is called *m:r^/ metaphor, 
and is indeed one of the greatest misapplications of this 
figure. One may be ^sheltered uvi^ev the patronage of a 
great man ;V but it would be wrong to say, ''sheltered un- 
der the mask of dissimulation : ,r as a mask conceals, but 
does not shelter* Addison in his letter from Italy, says ; 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain,.. 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
The muse ? figured as a horse, may be bribled .- but wbeH- 
we speak of launching, we make J it a ship; and by no 
force of imagination, can it be supposed both a horse and a 
ship atone moment ;, bridled, to hinder it from launching* 

The same author, eiswhere r says, "There is not a 
single view o£ human nature, which is not sufficient to 
extinguish the seed's of pride.' r Observe the incoherence 
of the things here joined together f making a view extin- 
guish > and .extinguish seeds* 

As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should 
not be crowded together oirthe same object £ for the mind 
lias difficulty in passing readily through many different 
views of the same object, presented in quick succession. 

The last rule concerning metaphors, is, that they be not 
ffid far ■pursued; If the resembl anee, on w hie h the figure 
is &aded> be long dwelt upon, and carried into ail its 
minute circumstances, we tire the reader;, who soon 
grows 4 weary of this stretch of fancy ; and we rendep our 
discourse obscure. This is called straining a metaphor. 
Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to run 
anto this exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon 
a figure tbat pleases them, they are loth to part with it,. 
®nd frequently continue it so long, as to become tedious 
and intricate. We may observe, for instance, how ihe 
following metaphor is spun out. 

Thy thoughts are vagabonds ; all outward bound, 

"Midst s<md;^ asd rocks, and- storms, to cruise for pleasure \ 



Figures.) perspicuity*, &c. 29? 

If gain'd, dear bought ; and better miss'd than gain'd. 

Fancy and sense, from an infected shore, 

Thy cargo bring ; and pestilence the prize : 

Then such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 

By fond indulgence but iuflam'd the more ; 

Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tir'd.. 

An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued;, 
since it is the representation of some one thing by another 
that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it We 
may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an 
allegory, in the 80th Psalm ; where the people of Israel 
are represented under the image of a vine : and the figure 
lis carried throughout with great exactness and beauty. 
"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast 
out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it fill- 
ed the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of 
it ; and the boughs thereof were like the good!j T cedars. 
She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches 
into the river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, 
so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her ? 
The boar out of the wood doth waste it. and the wild beast? 
of the field doth devour if. Return, we beseech thee, O 
God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and 
visit this vine!" See also Ezekiel xvii. 22 — 24. 

The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an 
allegory, is, that the figurative and the literal meaning be 
not mixed inconsistently togGthn\ Indeed, all the rules 
that were given for metaphors, mnj also be applied to 
allegories, on account of. the affinity they bear to each 
other. The only material difference between them, be- 
sides the one beky^ short and the other being prolonged, 
is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words 
that are connected with it in their proper and natural: 
meaning : as, when I say.,. "Achilles was a lion ," "An 
able minister Is the pillar of the state ;" the "Hon" and 
the "pillar" "are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of 
"Achilles" anil the "minister," which I join to them ; but 
ten allegory is, or may be, allowed to stand less connected 
%i(h the literal meaning, the interpretation not being so 
directly pointed out, but left to our own rejection. 

Allegory was a favourite method of delivering instruc- 
tion in ancient times; for what we caJJ fables, or parables, 



293 appendix. (Figures. 

are no other than allegories. By words and actions at- 
tributed to beasts or inanimate objects, the dispositions 
of men were figured ; and what we cat! the moral, is the 
unfigured sense or meaning of the allegory, 

A Comparison or simile, is, when the resemblance be- 
tween two objects is expressed in form, and generally pur- 
sued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits : 
as when it is said, " The actions of princes are like those 
great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but 
their springs have been seen by few." "As the moun- 
tains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round 
about his people." "Behold, how good and how pleasant/ 
it is for brethren to dwell together in unity ! It i3 like 
the precious ointment; &c. and as the dew that descend- 
ed upon the mountains of Zion." 

The advantage of this figure arises from Vae illustra- 
tion which the £imiie employed gives to the principal ob- 
ject; from the clearer view which it presents ; or the 
more strong impression which it stamps upon the mind. 
Observe the effect- of it in the following instance. The 
author is explaining the distinction between the 'powers 
of sense and imagination in tjie human mind. u As wax," 
sajs he, "would not be adequate to the purpose of signa- 
ture^ if it had not the power to retain as well as to receive 
the impression, the same holds of the soul, with respect 
to sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive power; 
imagination, its retentive. Had it sense without imagina- 
tion, it would not be as wax, but as water, where, though 
ail impressions are instantly made, yet as soon as they 
are made, they are instantly lost. 5 * 

lb comparisons of this nature, the understanding is 
concerned much more than the fancy : and therefore the 
rules to be observed, with respect to them, are, that they 
be clear, and that they be useful ; that they tend to ren- 
der our conception of the principal object more distinct; 
and that they do not lead our view aside, and bewilder 
it with any f Use light. We should always remember 
that similes are not arguments. However apt they may 
be,, they do no more than explain the writer's sentiments* 
they do not prove them to be founded on truth. 

■Comparisons ought not to be. founded on likenesses 
which are too, faint aiui remote. For these, in place of 



Figures.) perspicuity, Szg. 209 

assisting, strain (he mind to comprehend them, end throw 
no light upon the subject. It is also to be observed, that 
a comparison which, in the principal circumstances, car- 
ries a sufficiently near resemb; -nee. may become unnatu- 
ral and obscure, if pushed too far. Nothing is more oppo- 
site to the design of this figure, than to hunt after a great 
number of coincidents in minute points, merely to show 
how far the Writer's ingenuity can stretch the resem- 
blance. 

A Metonymy \§ founded on the several relations, of cause 
and effect, container and contained, sign and thfh-g signi- 
nined. When we s?y ; "The}' read .Hilton, " the cause 
is put instead of the effect ; meaning "Milton's works." 
On the other hand, when it is said, 'Gray hairs should 
be respected." we put the effect for the cause, meaning by 
"gray hairs," old age, "The kettle boils," is a phrase 
where the name of the container is substituted for that 
of the thing contained/ "To assume the sceptre," is a 
common expression for entering on royal authority ; the 
sign, being put for the thing signified. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the 
whole ; a genus for a species, or a species f ' r a" genus ; 
in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put 
for the precise object meant : the Ugnre is then called a 
Syneedocke or Comprehension. V: is ery common for in- 
stance, to describe ja; whole ol y some remarkable 
part of it : as when we say, "A fleel of twenty sdil^ m 
the place of "ships ;" whea we use the %ed&* for the 
4 person, the "wuvet "-sea" In like manner, an 
attribute may \ .r a subject : as, "Youth" for the 
"young" the "deep/ for the>sea ;" and sometimes a 
subject for lis attribute. 

Personification or Prosopopoeia, is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The 
use of this figure is very natural and extensive : there is 
a wonderful pronmess in human nature, nnder emotion, to 
animate all olj.y.s. When we say, the ground thirsts 
for rain," or, ' the earth smiles with plenty f when we 
speak of "ambition's being restlevs^ or, "a disease's 
ingd-ccifful;" such expressions show the facility with 
which the mind can accommodate the properties of living 
creatures to things that are inanimate, ur to abstract coa- 



500 -app'EN&ix. (Figures, 

ceptions of its own forming. The following are striking 
examples from the Scriptures : 'When Israel went out of 
Egypt, the house of Judah from a people of strange lan- 
guage ; the sea saw it, and fled : Jordan wasdriven back X 
The mountains skipped like rams, and Ihe little hills like 
Iambs. What nileC\ thee, O thou sea ! that thou fleddest? 
Than Jordan, that thou wast driven back ? Ye mountains-, 
that ye skipped like rams ; and ye little hills, like lambs ? 
Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of the -Lord, at the 
presence of the God of Jacob." 

"The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad 
for lliem : and the desart shall rejoice and blossom as the 
rose. 5 ' 

Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating 
the forbidden fruit. Terror produces the figure. 

Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 

In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 

Sky low'rM, and, muft'ring thunder, some sad drops 

"YVeptj at completing of the mortal sin. 

The impatience of Adam to know his origin, h suppo- 
sed to prompt the personification of all lhe objects he be^ 
dreld, in order to procure information. 

Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 
And thou enlightened- earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here? 

We shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure, 
from bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified 
Natural Religion : and we may perceive, in the personifi- 
cation, the spirit and grace which the figure, when well 
conducted, bestows on discourse. The author is com- 
paring together our Saviour and Mahomet. c, Go(sayshe) 
to your Natural Religion : lay before her Mahomet, and 
his disciples, may eo in armour and blood, riding' 
umph over the spoi-s of thousands who fell by his yi 
ous sword. Sh^w her the cities which h*-: set in fiam 
the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, ami t 
miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the earth 
When she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into 
Ms retirement; show her the Prophets chamber; his 
coacubme3 aad his wives f and let feer hear biw allege 




"Figures.) perspicuity, &e. 301 

revelation, and a Divine command, (o justify Ins adultery 
and lust." > 

"When she is tired with (his prospect, then show her 
the: blessed Jesus, humble and r. to ail 

the sons of men, Let her see him ost retired 

privacies; let her follow' him to the mount, and hear his 
devotions and supplications to God. Carry her to his 
table, to view his poor fare; and hear his her. verily 
discourse. Let her attend him to the tribunal; and con- 
sider the patience with which he endured the scoffs aud 
reproaches of his enemies. Lead lief to his cross ; let 
her view him in the agony of death, and hear his last 
praj er for Ids persecutors; 'Father, forgive them, for 
they know not what they do." — V\ ftmtl Religion 

has thus viewed both, ask her, which is the Prophet of 
God? — But her answer we have already had, when she 
saw part of this scene, through (he eyes of the Centurion, 
who attended at the cross. By him she spoke, and said^ 
'Truly this man was the Son of God.'*' This is more 
than elegant ; it is truly sublime. The whole passage is 
animated; and the Figures rise at the conclusion, when 
Natural Religion, who, before, was onjy a spectator, is 
introduced as speaking by the Centurion's voice. 

This figure of speech i3 somet tines very improperly and 
ravagantiy applied. A capital error in personifying 
objects, is, to deck them with fantastic and trrfiip.g circum- 
stances. A practice of tins sort dissolves the potent 
charm, which enchants and deceives the reader; and 
either leaves him dissatisfied, or excites, perhaps, his risi- 
bility. 

Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications, 
consists in introducing them, when the subject of discus- 
sion is destitute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared 
to relish them. One can scarcely peruse, with compo- 
sure, the following use of this figure. It is the language 
of our elegant poet Thomson, who thus personifies and 
connects (lie bodily appetites, and their gratifications. 

Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 

Produce the mighty bowl : 

Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn 

1 1 ■ 1 p e ri'e c t, from hi« i 1 . ark retreat % 

flirty ysars : and now his honest fr< 
i'm the light re foment. 



302 appendix. (Figures. 

It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and stoort 
metaphors and similes, which also have been allowed to 
be the proper language of high passion,, that they are the 
proper expression of it, only on those occasions when it 
is so far moderated as to aehait of words. The first and 
highest transports seem to overwhelm the mind, and are 
denoted by silence or groans : next succeeds the violent 
and passionate language, of which these figures constitute 
a great part Such agitation however, cannot long con- 
tinue ; the passions having spent their force, the mind soon 
subsides into that exhausted and dispirited state, in which 
ail figures are improper. 

Apostrophe is a turning g(i from the regular course oC 
ihe subject, to address some person x>r thing ; as, "Death 
is swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? 
O grave ! where is thy victory ¥?. 

"The following is an instance of personification and apo- 
strophe united: thou sword of the Lord! how long 
will it be ere thou be quiet .? put thyself up into thy scab- 
bard, rest and be still ! How can it be quiet, seeing the 
Lord hath given it a charge against Askelon, and against 
the sea-shore ? there hath he appointed it." See also 
an extraordinary example of these figures, in the 14th 
chapter of Isaiah,, from the 41 h to the 19th verse, where 
the prophet describes the fail of ihe Assyrian empire. 

A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to 
deck the object addressed with affected ornaments; by 
which authors relinquish the expression of passion, and 
substitute ior it the language of fancy. 

Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too 
great length. The language of violent passion is always 
concise, and often abrupt It passes suddenly from 
one object lo another. It often glances at a thought, 
starts from it, and leaves it unfinished. The succession 
of ideas is irregular, and connected by distant and uncom- 
mon relations. On all these accounts nothing is more 
unnatural than long speeches uttered by persons under 
the influence of strong passions. Yet this error occurs 
in several poets of distinguished reputation. 

The ne^t figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is 
founded on the resemblance; antithesis, on the contrast 
or opposition of two ejects. Contrast "has always the 



Figures.) perspicuity, &c 

effect, to make each of the contrasted objects appear in 
the stronger light. White, for instance, never appears 
50 bright as when it is opposed to black ; and when both 
are viewed together. An author, ill his defence of a 
friend against the charge of murder, expresses himself 
thus : "Can you believe that the person whom he sctu- 
pied to slay, when he might have done so with full jus- 
tice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, with secure 
impunity ; he made no scruple to rmmler against justice, 
in an unfavourable place, at an unseasonable time, and at 
the risk of capital condemnation f ' 

The following examples further illustrate this figure. 

"Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 

'If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase 
his stores, but to diminish h"i3 desires."* 

"If you'regulate your desires according to the standard 
ef nature, you will never be poor; if according to the 
Standard of opinion, you will never be rich." 

A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the 
he two last examples; both because it is suppos- 
ed to be the fruit of meditation, and because it is design- 
ed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls it more 
easily by the help of such contrasted expressions. But 
where such sentences frequently succeed each other ; 
where this becomes an author's favourite and prevailing 
manner of expressing himself, his style appears too -much 
studied and laboured ; it gives us the impression of an 
author attending more to his manner of saying things, 
than to the things themselves. 

The following is a beautiful example of Antithesis. 
"If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, 
for abandoning the cause of liberty, which he would not, 
however^ survive ; what shall w r e say of those, who em- 
brace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of it 
when they have much to hope, and give it up when they 
have nothing to fear r> — The capital antithesis of this 
sentence, is instituted between the zeal of Cato for liber- 
ty, and the indifference of some others of her patrons. 
But, besides the leading antithesis, there are two subordi- 
nate ones, in the latter member: "Grow tired of it, when 
they have much to hone : and give it up, when they 
have nothing to- fear J' 



304 appendix. (Figures 

The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of 
this figure, in his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard. 

"lie has visited all Europe, — not to survey the sunn> 
luousness of palaces, or the staieliness of temples; not to 
make accurate measurements of. the remains of ancient 
grandeur, nor to form a scale of the curiosity of modern 
arts ; nor to collect medals, or collate manuscripts : — but 
to dive into the depths of dungeons ; to plunge into the 
infection of hospitals ; to survey the mansions of sorrow 
and pain; to take the gage and dimensions of misery, de- 
pression, and contempt; to remember the -forgotten; to 
attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and com- 
pare and collate the distresses of all men, in ail countries." 

The next figure concerning which we are to treat is 
called Hyperliolc or Exaggeration. It consists in magni- 
fying an object -beyond its natural bounds. In all ianr 
guages, even in common conversation, hyperbolical ex- 
pressions very frequently occur : as swift as the win 
white as ihe snow ; and the like; and the common 
of compliment are almost all of them extravagant h 
boles. Ii any thing be remarkably good or great 
kind, we are instantly ready to add to it some exagg 
jng epithet, and to make it the greatest or best w 
ever saw. The imagination has always a tendency to 
gratify itself , by magnifying its present object, and cann- 
ing it to excess. More or less of this hyperbolical turn 
will prevail in language, according to the liveliness of 
ninaiion amoiig the people who speak it. Hence young 
pie deal . imjch in hyperboles. Hence the language of 
the Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than that of the 
Europeans, who are of more phlegmatic,, or, perhaps we 
may say, of more correct imagination. Hence, among all 
writers io early times, and in the rude periods of sociery* 
we may expect, this figure to abDund. Greater experi- 
ence, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of 
Imagination, and chasten the manner of expression. 

Hyperboles are of two kinds ; either such as are em- 
ployed in description., or sjjeh as are suggested by the 
warmth of passion. All passions without exception, love, 
terror, amazement, indignation, and even grief throw 
the mind ink) confusion, aggravate their objects, and of 
course prompt a hyperbolical style. Jtlence the following. 




Figures.) FERsricuiTY, &c. 305 

sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as they are 
described, contain nothing but what is natural and pro- 
per ; exhibiting the picture of a mind agitated with rage 
and despair. 

Me, miserable V which way shall I fiyr 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? 
Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ; 
And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 
Still threatening: to devour me, opens wide, 
r.ich the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven. 

Tile fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the 
size of their leader. "I saw their chief," says the scout 
of G^sian, "tafl a3 a roek of ice ; his spear, the blasted 
fir; Lis shield, the rising moon :- he sat on- the shore, like 
a c?oud of -mist on the hill."' 

The errors frequent in. the use of Hyperboles, arise- 
eiiher from overstraining, or Introducing them on unsuit- 
able occasions. Dryden, in his poem on the restoration 
of lung Charles the Second, compliments that monarch, 
at the expense of the sun himself, 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
It stam'cTthe duller sun's meridian light. 

his is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to asci 

precise rule, the proper measure and boun- 
dary • 'lire. Good sense and just taste must de- 
> ond wfaiehj if ^ve pass, we beeoura. 
■. . . . 
Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper 
only in animated Mid warm composition. It is produced 
-when, instead of relaftfig something that is past, we use 
present tense ; and describe li as actually passing 
:e our eyes. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oratiqu 
against Catiline : ''I see c hold this city,, 
the or it of the earth, and [he capital of ail stations, 
suddenly in velvet] in one qoaBagif&tifMSh I . ire me 
the slaugi \i 

midst of their ruined ranee 

of Ceihegus nse»-tc 
he is triuinphj . 

1 - ■ ■ Ini'si- 

■ ■ irrh 



3&0 appendix, (Figured 

needs, by the force of sympathy, impress the reader or 
hearer very strongly. B«t,Jn order to a successful ex- 
ecution, it requires an uncommonly warm imagination, 
and so happy a selection of circumstances, as shall maks 
us think we see before our eyes the scene that is descri- 
bed. 

Tnt^rogati&n* The, unfigured, literal use of interroga- 
tion, is to ask a question : but when men are strongly 
ed, whatever ihey would affirm or deny, with great 
t.in:;estnes3 they naturally put in the form of aquestion 9 
expressing thereby the strongest confidence of the truth 
of their own sentiment^ and appealing to their hearer?. 
for the impossibility of the contrary. Thus Balaam ex- 
pressed himself to Balak. 4 -The Lord is not a man. tha 
he should lie, neither the son of man that he should re- 
pent* Hath he said it ? and shall he not doit ?. Hath he 
spoken it ?•• and shall he not make it good ? ;> 

Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We se< 
this in ihe animated, introductory speech of Cicero agains 
Catiline: *'How long will you, Catiline, abuse o'ur pa 
fience ? Do you not perceive that your designs are disco- 
vered Vy — He might indeed have said ; "You abuse our 
patience a long while. You must be sensible, that your 
designs are discovered." J3ut.it is easy to perceive, how 
much this latter mode of expression falls short of the 
force and vehemence of the former. 

Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions of the- 
mind; such as, surprise, admiration, joy-, grief, atod the 
like. u Wo is me that I sojourn inJVl$seeh,. that 1 dwell 
m the tents of Kedar l n * Psalms. 

a O that my bead were waters, and mine eyes a foirn-- 
tain of tears, that I might weep day and night, for the 
slain .of the daughter of my people ! O that I had in the* 
wilderness a lodging-place of way faring men f ' Jeremiah* 

Though interrogations maybe introduced into close 
nnd * s&rnest reasoning,, exclamations belong only to. 
strong emotions of the mind. When judiciously employ-, 
ed, they agitate tha hearer or the reader with similar 
passions : but it is extremely improper, and sometimes, 
ridiculous, to use them on trivial occasions, and on mean 
u iow subjects. The unexperienced writer often attempts - 
"o elevai$ ftte Jangaag% by the copious display of tfeis, 



Figures:) perspicuity, & 

figure : but he rarely or never succeeds. He frequently 
renders his composition frigid to excess, or absolutely lu- 
dicrous, by calling on us to enter into his transports, when 
a.oihing is said or done to demand emotion. 

Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to 
our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force 
to our observation. Persons maybe reproved for their 
negligence, by saying ; tf You have taken great care in- 
deed.^' Cicero says of the person against whom he was 
pleading; t4 Wc ; have great reason to believe that the 
modest man would not ask him for his debt,- when he pur- 
sues his life." 

Ironical exhortation 19 a very agreeable kind of figure .; 
which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing, 
in the clearest light, concludes with a feigned encourage- 
ment to pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having 
beautifully described the noise and tumults of Rorne r he 
adds ironically ; 

"Go now, and study tuneful ver^e at Rome." 
The subjects of irony are vices and follies of all kinds- : 
and this msde of exposing them, is often more effectual 
than serious reasoning. The gravest persons have not 
declined the use of this figure, 00 proper occasions. The* 
-wise and virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his 
endeavours to discountenance vicious and foolish practi- 
ces. Even in the sacred writings, we have a remarkable 
instance ofit. The prophet Elijah, when he challenged 
the priests of Baal tpprove the truth of tneir deity, "mock- 
ad them, and said : Cry aloud, for he is a god : J either he 
'.king, oi\ho is pursuing; or he is in a journey, or pesv 
nture hesk^pelh,- an:] -.must be awakeuV'' 
Exclamations ar<d Irony are sometimes united: as in 
Bro's oration for Balbus, where he- derides his accd- 
ovvsaying ; tc O excellent interpreter of the law! 
master of antiquity ! corrector and ameuder of our con- 
stitution if 

The last figure df speech that we shall mention, is what? 

writers call Amp ? ification or Climax. It consists in heiffht- 

I eni-t.g all the circumstances of ;an object or action, which 

we desire to place in a strong light.. Cicero gives a 

lively instance of this figure, when he says ; "It is a 

:e to put a Roman, citizen in bonds ; it is th^ height 



awenbist. (Figure;?. 

of guilt to scourge him; little less tHaii pasrfcide to put 
him to; death : what name then shall Igme to the act ol 
crucifj ing him ?" 

Archbishop Til iotsoo uses this figure very happily, to- 
recommend good and virtuous actions : " After we Eave 
practised good actions awhile, they become easy ; and 
when they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in then! ; 
and when they please us, we do them frequently ; and? 
by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit ; and con- 
firmed habit is a kind of second nature ; and so far as any 
thing is natural, so far it is necessary ; and We can hardly 
do otherwise ; nay, we do it many times -when we do not 
think of it." 

We shall conclude this article with an example of a* 
beautiful climax j taken from the charge oi' a judge to the 
jury, ia {he case of a woman accused of murdering her 
own child. "Gentlemen, if one man had any how slain 
another; if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a wo- 
man occasioned* the death of her enemy ; even ihess 
criminals would have been capitally punished by the Cor- 
nelian Saw;, but if this guiltless infanty that could; make 
no enemy, had been murdered by its^own nursei what 
punishment would not then the mother have demanded ?? 
With what cries and exclamations would she have stun- 
ned your earn! What shall we say then, .when a woman, 
guilty of homicide, a mother* of the murder of her inno- 
cent child, hath comprised all those misdeeds in one sin- 
gle crime ? a crime, in its- own nature, detestable ; in a 
woman prodigious ; in a mother incredible ; and perpe- 
trated against one whose age called for compassion* whose 
ri ear relation claimed aiTection, and whose innocence de* 
served the Highest favour."' 

We have now Snished what was proposed, concerning 
Perspicuity in single words and phrases, and the accurate 
construction of sentences, The former has been con- 
sidered under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and Pre- 
eision ; and the latter, under those of Clearness* Unity*- 
Strength and the proper use of Figurative Language. 
Though many of those attentions which have been re- 
commended, may appear minute, yet their effect upon 
writing and style, is much greater than might, at first, be 
iiaagmed, A scutiaient which is expressed in accurate 



Figures.) * perspicuity, tiff. ****^09* 

language, and in a periooVc , Ie^y/ w heatly, and well ar- 
ranged, always maizes a stjqn^er impression on the mind, 
than one that is expressed iha&$urate!y, or iu a feeble or 
embarrassed manner. Every one feels, this upon a com- 
parison ; and if the effect be sensible in one sentence, 
how much more in a whole discourse, or composition that: 
is made up of such sentences ? 

The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and 
into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is 
to communicate •, in correct language, and in the clearest and 
most natural order, the ideas which we mean <ta transfuse 
into the minds of others. Such a selection and arrangement 
of words, as do most justice to the sense, and express k 
to most advantage, make an agreeable and strong impres- 
sion. To these points have tended all the rules which 
have been given. Did we always think clearly, and were 
we. at the same time, full} 7 masters of the language in 
which we write, there would be occasion for few rules. 
Our sentences would then, of course, acquire all those 
properties of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, 
which Jfave y l«eenTeco^tm^naVd. For we may rest as- 
sured, that whenever we express ourselves ill, besides* 
the mismanagement of language, there i3, for the most part, 
some mistake in our manner of conceiving the subject. 
Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are general- 
ly, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and 
feeble thought. Thought and expression act and re-act 
upon each other. The understanding ahd'tanguage have 
a strict connexion ; ixnd they who are learning to compose 
and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order are 
learning, at the same time, to think vMth accuracy and or- 
' der; a consideration which alone will recompense the stu- 
| dent, for his attention to this branch of literature. For a 
> r explanation of the Figures of Speech, see the Octavo 
Grammar, on this 

The reader may find a very cc •<rementof the 

\ ppendix, in the Third FAHior- of the Octavo Grammar. 

He ra-ty also find, at the end of the Twelfth, or any subsequent 
edition of the Key to the Exercises, a copious Alphabetical Indec 
tpthe i contained in the Grammar, tW&ierci 

and the K?\ ercises. This Index forms, at the same tirne> 

I me of the chief rules and principles of the language 



A0I>RESH 

TO YOUNG STUDENTS, 



The Compiler of these elements of the English language, hopes 
it will not be deemed inconsistent with the nature and design of 
his work, to make a short address to the young* persons engaged 
in the study of it, respecting their future walks in the paths of li~J 
terature, and the chief purpose to which they should apply their 
acquisitions. 

In forming this Grammar, and the volume of Illustrations con- 
nected with it, the author was influenced by a desire to facilitate 
your progress in learning, and v at the same time, to impress on 
your minds principles of piety and virtue. He wishes also to as- 
sist, in some degree, the labours of those who are cultivating your 
understandings, and providing for you a fund of rational and use- 
ful employment ;. an employment calculated to exclude those 
frivolous pursuits, and that love of ease and sensual pleasure,which 
enfeeble and corrupt the minds of many inconsiderate youth, and 
render them useless to society fif&rt*** fr** v<M*4f- fr99f<P*^~ 

Without your own best exertions, the concern tff others for your 
welfare, will be of little avail : with them, you may fairly promise 
yourselves success. The- writer of this address, therefore, recom- 
mends to you, an earnest co-operation with the endeavours of 
your friends to promote your improvement and happiness. This 
co-operation, whilst it secures your own progress, will afford you 
the heart-felt satisfaction, of knowing that you are cherishing the 
hopes, and augmenting the pleasures of those with whom you 
are connected by the most endearing ties* He recommends to 
you also, serious and elevated views of the studies in which you 
may be engaged.. Whatever may be your attainments, never al- 
low yourselves to rest satisfied with mere literary acquisitions, 
nor with a selfish or contracted application of them. When they 
advance only the interests of this stage of being, and look not be- 
yond the present transient scene, their influence is circumscribed 
within a very narrow sphere. The great business of this life is to 
prepare,, and- qualify, us, for the enjoyment of a better, by culti- 
vating a pure and humble state of mind,, and cherishing habits of 
piety towards God, and benevolence to men-,. Every thing that 
promotes or retards this- important work, is of great moment to 
you, and claims your first and most serious attention. 

If, then, the cultivation of letters, and an advancement in 
knowledge, are found to strengthen and enlarge your minds, to 
purify and exalt your pleasures, and to dispose you to pious and 
wtuous sentiments and conduct, they produce excellent effects • 



ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 311 

which, with your best endeavours to improve them, and the Di- 
vine blessing superadded, will not fail to render you, not ^o dy 
wise and good yoi but also the happy instructs of d£ 

fusing wisdom, r L goodness around yc,u. Thus unpro- 

ved your acqui: handmaids to virtue ; and thty 

may eventual , the rewards, much the Supreme 

Sghasprom. and well-directed exeruons, lor 

the promotion of truth and goodness amongst men. 

But if you counteract the hopes of your fcienos, an< 
dency of these ar • ^lot your r t -- orlma- 

ginary distinctions, and regard with eoateiijpt, u rn un- 

lettered mind ; if you suffer yourselvc - 

curious or trifling .peculations; if your bear, an be 

debased and poisoned, by the influence ot 

cious books, for whicl. !■ n can make am- 

' ends ; if you spend so much of your time In literary engage). 
as to make them interfere with higher occupations, and iea- you 
to forget, that pious and benevolent aetion is the great end. of 
your being : if such be the i Misapplication of vour acqui- 

sitions and advant ages,— instead of becoming a bussing to you, 
they will prove the occasion of greater condemnation ■ and, m 
the hour of serious thought, they may excite the painful rejec- 
tions,— that it would have been better for you, to have remained 
illiterate and unaspiring ; to have been confined to the humblest 
| walks of life ; and to have been even hewers of wood and draw- 
ers of water all your days. 

Contemplating the dangers to which you are exposed, the sor- 
rows and dishonour which accompany talents misapplied, and a 
.course of indolence and follv, may you exert your utmost endea- 
vours to .avoid them ! Seriously reflecting on the great end lor 
which you were brought into existence ; on the bright and en- 
-couradng examples of many excellent young persons ; and on 
the mournful deviations of others, who once were promising ; may 
you be so wise as tp choose and follow that path, which leads, to 
honour, usefulness, and true enjovment ! This is the morning of 
your life, in which pursuit is ardent, and obstacles readily give 
j way to vigour and perseverance. Embrace this favourable sea- 
, son ; devote yourselves to the acquisition of knowledge and vir- 
tue ; and humbly pray to God that he may bless your labours. 
J Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source 
, from whence they are all derived. A lively sense of the priyile- 
and blessings, by which you have been distinguished, will m- 
' duce you to render to your heavenly Father, the just returns of 
gratitude and love ■; and these fruits of early goodness will be re- 
garded by him as acceptable offerings, and secure to you his fa- 
vour and protection. 

Whatever difficulties and discouragements maybe found m re- 

sisting the allurements of vice, you may be humbly confident, that 

Divine assistance will be afforded to all your good and pious reso- 

and that every virtuous effort will have a correspondent 



- : 



3i2 ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 

reward. You may rest assured too, that all the advantages arr- 
8ing from vicious indulgences, are light and contemptible, as weH 
as exceedingly transient, compared with, the substantial enjoy- 
ments, the present pleasures, and the future hopes, which result 
from piety and virtue. The Holy Scriptures assure us, that 
"The ways of wisdom are ways of pleasantness, and that all her,, 
paths are peace :" "that religion has the promise of the life that • 
now is, and of that which is to come :" and that the- truly good. 
maii^ whatever may &e -the condition allotted to him by Divine 
Providence, - l in ail tl ■'. thanks, and rejoices even in tri'' 

nidation." — Some of th^e sentiments have been finely illustrated 
by a celebrated poet. The author of this address presents the 
illustration to yea, as a striking and beautiful portrait of virtue ; 
with his most cordial wishes, that your hearts and lives may cor- 
respond to it ; and that your happiness here, may be an earnest 
of happiness hereafter. 

"Know then thj* t*utE, (enough for man to know,) . 
Virtue alone is happiness below : 
The only point where human bliss stands still ; 
And tastes the good, withput the fall to ill : 
Where only merit constant pay receives, 
Is bless'd in what it takes, and what it gives ; 
The joy unequali-d, if its end it gain, 
And if it lose, attended with no pain : 
Without satiety, though o -er so ■ bless'd ; 
And but more relished as the more distress'd : 
The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, 
Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears: 
Good, from each object, from each place acquire ; 
For eve exercis'd, yet never tir'd ; 
Never -, elated, while one man's oppressed ; 
Never dejected, while another's blessM : 
And where no wants, no wishes can remain ; 
Since but to wish more virtue, is to gain. — 
For him alone hope leads from goal to goal, 
And opens still-, and opens on his soul ; 
Till lengthened on to faith, and unconfufd, 
A pours the bliss that fills up all the- mind.' 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 238 315 4' 



